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Choppy Waters: New Nurse’s Guide to Tough Personalities

Nurse Cheung — Mon, 12 Feb 2024 13:00:00 +0000

Hello, my fabulous besties! Nurse Cheung in the house, rolling out another heart-to-heart in our “Ask Nurse Cheung” series.

We’re about to unravel those tricky queries with a sprinkle of laughs and a whole lot of care. So, what’s on the docket today? A real zinger that’s all too familiar, especially for you fledglings in the bustling healthcare hustle: How do you handle difficult personalities as a new graduate?

Let’s face it, stepping into the healthcare environment is like entering a vast ocean. It’s beautiful, unpredictable, and yes, sometimes you come across a few sharks. But worry not, my little dolphins! I’m here to share some lifebuoys to help you navigate these choppy waters with grace.

A Little Thanks Goes a Long Way

Ever received feedback that felt like a splash of cold water? Yeah, we’ve all been there.

But here’s a little secret: say “Thank you.” It might feel counterintuitive, especially if the feedback is harsh, but acknowledging it can diffuse tension faster than you can say “intramuscular injection.” It shows you’re open to growth, and let’s be honest, it can catch the other person off guard—in a good way!

Strategize Your Position

Got a known bully on the unit? Here’s a pro move: place yourself where the action is.

Staying central in the unit means any “feedback” they offer has an audience. It’s like bringing a flashlight to those shadowy corners; suddenly, everyone can see what’s happening.

Keep a Record

I know this sounds difficult because nursing is so busy, but it’s important. If things take a turn for the inappropriate, document it.

Write down names, dates, and exactly what was said or done. Think of it as charting for your work environment. This isn’t about holding grudges; it’s about ensuring a healthy workplace for everyone.

Speak Up for Your Education

Remember, this journey is about your growth as a healthcare professional.

If your preceptor isn’t the wind beneath your wings, it’s okay to ask for someone else. Your education is paramount, and you need the right mentor to help you soar.

The Power of Names

Know the names of everyone you work with, especially those unsung heroes like unit secretaries and CNAs.

They keep our world spinning, and acknowledging them by name builds bridges. Plus, it’s just nice to be nice, right?

Overcommunicate: The Safe Nurse's Mantra

If there’s one thing you should be known for, let it be your willingness to ask questions.

A safe nurse is a curious nurse.

Never hesitate to seek clarity, double-check orders, or simply learn more about a patient’s care plan. It’s not just about safety; it’s about being thorough and engaged.

Don't Take It Personally

Last but not least, armor up with a thick skin. Healthcare is high stakes, high stress, and emotions can run high.

If you face criticism or harsh words, breathe through it. What’s personal is your commitment to patient care, not the heat of a stressful moment.

Navigating difficult personalities is a rite of passage in healthcare, but remember, you’re not alone. We’ve all been there, and we’ve got your back.

Every challenge is a stepping stone to becoming the confident, competent healthcare professional you’re meant to be.

So, my besties, wear your scrubs proudly, keep your head high, and remember that the most challenging experiences often lead to the greatest growth.

Let’s turn those choppy waters into a path of resilience and understanding.

Until next time, keep asking, keep learning, and keep caring.

With love,

Nurse Cheung

ATI TEAS vs HESI Entrance Exam: What’s the Difference?

Nurse Cheung — Sat, 07 Jan 2023 17:15:31 +0000

Making the decision to pursue a career in nursing is a big one! And, if you’re like most people, you want to make sure that you are doing everything possible to give yourself the best chance of success.

That’s why so many students are wondering: ATI TEAS vs HESI Entrance Exam – which one should I take?

In this blog post, we will compare and contrast these two entrance exams so that you can make an informed decision about which one is right for you.

The ATI TEAS and the HESI Entrance Exam are both used by nursing schools as a way to gauge whether or not a student is prepared for the rigors of nursing school.

Both exams cover similar content, including Reading, Mathematics, Science, and English.

However, there are some key differences between the two exams that you should be aware of.

What are the ATI TEAS and HESI entrance exams?

The ATI TEAS and HESI entrance exams are both used by nursing schools as a way to test applicants’ knowledge and skills. The ATI TEAS tests for basic academic skills, while the HESI tests for more specific nursing-related knowledge.

So, which exam should you take? Well, that depends on the nursing school you’re applying to. Some schools require the ATI TEAS, while others will accept either exam.

If you’re not sure which exam to take, the best bet is to contact your chosen nursing school and ask them for their requirements. Whichever exam they require, make sure to give yourself plenty of time to study – these exams can be tough!

What does the ATI TEAS test for?

The ATI TEAS tests for Reading, Mathematics, Science, and English Language Usage. It is a multiple-choice exam with four answer options for each question. The test is timed, and you will have to work quickly to finish all the questions in the allotted time.

For example, the ATI TEAS has a section on science that includes questions about human anatomy and physiology, which may not have been covered in recent years for some students.

ATI TEAS scores are used by nursing schools as one way to compare applicants. A high score on the ATI TEAS can help you get into your dream nursing school, so it’s worth studying hard for this exam!

What does the HESI test for?

The HESI entrance exam is a computerized exam that tests for more specific nursing-related knowledge. Subjects covered on the HESI include Anatomy and Physiology, Chemistry, Mathematics, Reading Comprehension, and Vocabulary.

For example, the HESI has a section on math that covers Basic Algebra and Fractions – concepts that might not have been covered in recent years for some students.

Like the ATI TEAS, the HESI is timed and you will have to work quickly to answer all the questions. Your score on the HESI will be used by nursing schools along with your other application materials, such as your GPA and letters of recommendation.

However, both the ATI TEAS and HESI Entrance Exams are designed to test for the same basic concepts.

How do the ATI TEAS and HESI entrance exams compare in terms of difficulty level?

The ATI TEAS and HESI exams are both used by nursing programs to help determine whether or not a student is ready for the rigors of nursing school. But how do these two exams compare in terms of difficulty level?

To get a better understanding of this, let’s take a look at each exam in more detail.

The ATI TEAS is a multiple-choice exam that covers four main content areas: Reading, Math, Science, and English & Language Usage. The total number of questions on the ATI TEAS varies depending on which version of the exam you take, but it is typically around 170 questions.

The HESI entrance exam is also a multiple-choice exam, but it covers a wider range of topics than the ATI TEAS. The HESI exam includes questions on Math, Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary, Grammar, and General Knowledge. The total number of questions on the HESI exam also varies depending on which version you take, but it is typically around 200 questions.

So, from a purely numbers standpoint, the HESI exam is slightly longer and covers more topics than the ATI TEAS. But does that make it more difficult? Not necessarily.

It really depends on which content areas you find more challenging. For example, if you struggle with math or science, then the ATI TEAS might be a better option for you since it has fewer questions in those subject areas. On the other hand, if you find reading or English to be more challenging, then the HESI exam might be a better fit since it has more questions on those topics.

At the end of the day, there is no “right” or “wrong” answer when it comes to choosing between the ATI TEAS and HESI exams. It really depends on your individual strengths and weaknesses. So, if you’re not sure which exam to take, be sure to talk to your nursing program advisor for guidance.

What are some tips for preparing for the ATI TEAS or HESI entrance exam?

If you’re looking to get into a nursing program, you may be wondering what the difference is between the ATI TEAS and HESI entrance exams. Both exams are used by many nursing programs as a way to gauge a student’s readiness for nursing school.

Here are some tips for preparing for either exam:

–Start studying early. Don’t wait until the last minute to start cramming. You’ll have a much better chance of doing well if you give yourself plenty of time to study.

–Make use of practice tests. Taking practice tests can help you get familiar with the format of the exam and identify any areas where you need to focus your studies.

–Create a study schedule. Trying to study for an exam can be overwhelming. Breaking down your study time into manageable chunks can help you stay on track and make the most of your study time. Also include time for mental breaks, leisure activities, exercise, and socialization.

–Find a study buddy. Having someone to study with can help you stay motivated and on track. It can also be helpful to have someone to bounce ideas off of when you’re stuck.

Both the ATI TEAS and HESI exams are important factors in getting into nursing school. By following these tips, you can give yourself the best chance possible of doing well on either exam.

Conclusion

So, what is the difference between the ATI TEAS and HESI entrance exams? The main difference is that the ATI TEAS covers a narrower range of topics than the HESI exam.

However, it’s important to remember that there is no “right” or “wrong” answer when it comes to choosing an entrance exam – it really depends on your individual strengths and weaknesses.

If you’re not sure which exam to take, be sure to talk to your nursing program advisor for guidance.

ATI TEAS Version 7 Test: A Comprehensive Guide

Nurse Cheung — Sat, 07 Jan 2023 17:15:29 +0000

The ATI TEAS is a test that is designed to assess your knowledge of nursing and its various disciplines. It’s designed to be challenging, as it covers a variety of topics related to nursing. If you’re looking to become a registered nurse, then you’ll need to take the ATI TEAS and pass with flying colors.

This comprehensive guide will help you review all the important material you’ll need to know for the exam, as well as provide some test-taking strategies.

What is the ATI TEAS?

The ATI TEAS test is a multiple-choice exam that covers various topics related to nursing. The test is designed to assess your knowledge of nursing and its various disciplines. It’s important to note that the ATI TEAS is a very challenging exam, so you’ll need to study hard and make sure you’re fully prepared before taking it.

The ATI TEAS test is divided into four main sections: Reading, Math, Science, and English & Language Usage. Each section has a different emphasis, so you’ll need to make sure you’re studying the right material for each section.

Reading: The Reading section of the ATI TEAS test covers your ability to interpret, analyze, and understand various texts. You’ll need to be able to read and comprehend a variety of different passages, as well as answer questions about them.

Math: The Math section of the ATI TEAS test covers your ability to solve mathematical problems. You’ll need to be able to work with numbers and understand mathematical concepts in order to do well on this section of the exam.

Science: The Science section of the ATI TEAS test covers your knowledge of scientific concepts. You’ll need to be able to understand and apply scientific principles in order to do well on this section of the exam.

English & Language Usage: The English & Language Usage section of the ATI TEAS test covers your ability to use and understand the English language. You’ll need to be able to demonstrate your knowledge of grammar, spelling, and punctuation in order to do well on this section of the exam.

How Many Questions are on the ATI TEAS and What is the Time Limits

The ATI TEAS test is a multiple-choice exam that consists of 170 questions (including 20 unscored pretest items). The total time allotted for the exam is 209 minutes, which means you’ll have about 1 minute to answer each question.

What is the Passing Score for the ATI TEAS?

The passing score for the ATI TEAS is 60%. This means that you’ll need to get at least 102 out of the 170 questions correct in order to pass the exam.

How is the ATI TEAS Scored?

The ATI TEAS test is scored on a scale of 0-100, with 60 being the passing score. The four main sections of the exam (Reading, Math, Science, and English & Language Usage) are each worth 25% of your total score.

How to Register for the ATI TEAS Exam Online?

You can register for the ATI TEAS exam by visiting the website of the ATI website at www.atitesting.com. Once you’re on the website, click on the link that says “Register for the ATI TEAS.” This will take you to the registration page, where you’ll be able to create an account and register for the exam.

You’ll need to provide some personal information, such as your name, address, and contact information. You’ll also need to create a username and password for your account. After you’ve registered, you’ll be able to log in to your account and schedule your exam.

The exam is currently being offered in-person and remote proctor. This means you can either take the exam in person at a testing center or take the exam from home using a remote proctor application. You will be asked to choose which delivery method you prefer.

When you schedule your exam, you’ll need to choose a date, time, and location that’s convenient for you. You’ll also need to pay the exam fee, which can be anywhere from $85-115.

Types of question styles on the ATI TEAS test include?

There are four main types of question styles on the ATI TEAS test: multiple-choice, select all that apply, drag-and-drop (order sequencing), fill-in-the-blank, and hot spot (select an area in the image).

Multiple-choice: Multiple-choice questions are the most common type of question on the ATI TEAS test. You’ll be given a question and a list of possible answers to choose from. You’ll need to select the correct answer(s) in order to earn credit for the question.

Select all that apply: Select all that apply questions are similar to multiple-choice questions, but instead of having one correct answer, you’ll be given a list of possible answers and you’ll need to select all of the correct answers in order to earn credit for the question.

Drag-and-drop: Drag-and-drop questions require you to order a series of items. You’ll be given a list of items and you’ll need to drag and drop them into the correct order.

Fill-in-the-blank: Fill-in-the-blank questions require you to provide the missing word or phrase in a sentence. You’ll be given a sentence with a blank space, and you’ll need to select the word or phrase that correctly completes the sentence.

Hot spot: Hot spot questions require you to select an area in an image. You’ll be given an image with a question, and you’ll need to select the correct area of the image in order to earn credit for the question.

Strategies for answering the ATI TEAS question styles correctly

Multiple-choice: When answering multiple-choice questions, it’s important to read the question carefully and then look at all of the answer choices before selecting your answer. Eliminate any obviously incorrect answers, and then choose the best answer from the remaining choices.

Select all that apply: When answering select all that apply questions, it’s important to look at all of the answer choices before selecting your response. Traditionally, these types of questions will have four to six options listed and each option is either true or false. Eliminate any obviously incorrect answers, and then choose all of the remaining correct answers. No partial credit will be awarded for these questions.

Drag-and-drop: When answering drag-and-drop questions, it’s important to look at all of the items before drag-and-dropping them into the correct order. These questions may be presented as how-to steps or how to accomplish a task. Pay attention to any clues in the question that will help you determine the correct order of the items.

Fill-in-the-blank: When answering fill-in-the-blank questions, it’s important to look at the sentence with the blank space. Select the word or phrase that correctly completes the sentence. On the ATI TEAS Version 7, fill-in-the-blank questions will only be numerical responses. Use clues in the question, such as “Round to the tenth decimal” to form your response. These questions must be precise in order to be marked correct.

Hot spot: When answering hot spot questions, it’s important to read the question carefully and then look at the image. Pay attention to any clues in the question that will help you determine the correct area of the image to select. There may be two to five clickable areas of which only one area is the correct answer.

What is the best way to prepare for the ATI TEAS test?

There is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question, as the best way to prepare for the ATI TEAS test will vary depending on the individual. However, there are some general tips that can help you get ready for the exam.

1. Review the material: Reviewing the material before taking the ATI TEAS test is crucial, as it will help you have a better understanding of the topics covered on the exam. There are many different ways to review the material, such as using ATI TEAS prep books, using Nurse Cheung resources, or taking practice quizzes.

2. Get a good night’s sleep before the test: Getting a good night’s sleep before the ATI TEAS test is essential, as it will help you stay alert and focused during the exam.

3. Eat a healthy breakfast on test day: Eating a healthy breakfast on test day will help you have the energy you need to get through the exam. Foods high in sugars or a heavy breakfast can make you feel sluggish and may lower your performance during the exam.

4. Arrive at the testing center early: Arrive at the testing center early to allow yourself plenty of time to get situated. This will also give you a chance to relax and calm your nerves before the exam begins.

5. Make sure you’re familiar with the question style and format: Familiarizing yourself with the question style and format of the ATI TEAS test is important, as it will help you better understand the questions and know what to expect.

6. Use the practice exams: Using ATI TEAS practice exams is a great way to get familiar with the exam format and question style. Additionally, taking practice exams can help you identify any areas where you need to focus your studying.

7. Take breaks: Be sure to take breaks during your studying to avoid burnout. You can use the Pomodoro Technique, which is a time management strategy that involves working for 25 minutes and then taking a 5-minute break.

8. Have a study plan: Having a study plan is important, as it will help you stay on track and make the most of your study time. Your study plan should include when you will study, what materials you will use, and how you will assess your progress.

9. Practice, practice, practice: Do I need to say more? Practice, practice, practice.

10. Stay positive and relax: It is important to stay positive and relax during your studying for the ATI TEAS test. Getting stressed out will not help you learn the material, and it can actually hinder your performance on the exam.

What can you Bring to the ATI TEAS test?

Photo Identification: You will need to provide valid photo identification such as a driver’s license, passport, or green card. Student IDs and credit card photos will not meet the criteria.

Writing instrument: Bring two sharpened No. 2 pencils with attached erasers as no other writing instrument will be provided.

ATI Log-In Information: Write down your student account log in from www.atitesting.com prior to test day as you will need this information to log into your test.

What can you NOT Bring to the ATI TEAS test?

No additional apparel: Jackets, coats, hats, and sunglasses will not be permitted into the testing space. Religious apparel will have a discretionary allowance. All apparel will be inspected prior to entering the testing space by the proctor.

No personal items: Purses, backpacks, computer bags, and duffel bags will not be permitted.

No electronic devices of any kind: Cell phones, smartwatches, smartphones, digital watches, and all other electronics will not be permitted.

No food or drink: Unless there is documented necessity for the items you need, food and drink will not be permitted.

What to Expect on ATI TEAS Testing Day?

The testing center will validate your photo identification, complete your registration, and direct you to your seat.
Proctors will monitor for any odd or disruptive behaviors during your exam. If you are found to be in violation of these behaviors, you will be dismissed and your test will not be scored.
A four-function calculator will be provided by the testing center as personal calculators will not be allowed in.
A piece of scratch paper will be provided during the exam. This paper cannot be used prior to the exam or during breaks and must be returned at the end of the exam.
You will be provided a 10-minute break after the mathematics section of the exam. You will not have access to your personal items during the breaks.
If you must take a break during the exam, raise your hand and the proctor will guide you. Please note: timing for the exam will not stop and any time lost will not be made up.
If a technical issue occurs during the exam, raise your hand and the proctor will assist you.

Conclusion

Congratulations! You’ve made it to the end of this guide on how to ace the ATI TEAS. We know that you’ll do great on the exam with all of this helpful information. Be sure to review the content areas, brush up on your test-taking strategies, and get plenty of practice. And most importantly, don’t forget to relax and stay positive.

Best of luck!

ATI TEAS Reading: Learning the Key Ideas and Details for Test Success

Nurse Cheung — Sat, 07 Jan 2023 17:15:25 +0000

If you’re studying for the ATI TEAS Reading exam, it’s important to know the key ideas and details that will be covered on the test.

This blog post will outline some of the most important information that you need to know in order to be successful on the exam.

We’ll discuss topics such as the main idea and supporting details, inference and interpretation, and literary devices. After reading this post, you should have a good understanding of what to expect on the ATI TEAS Reading exam and how to prepare for it!

Objectives for Key Ideas and Details

Total scored items on ATI TEAS: 15 questions out of 39

Summarize Multi-Paragraph Details

Identify the Topic

The topic of a paragraph can usually be found at the beginning of a passage or paragraph, usually within the introduction. In some cases, the topic may be stated explicitly, while in others it may be implied. When you’re trying to identify the topic of a paragraph, ask yourself what the paragraph is mostly about.

For example, if a paragraph is mostly about animals that live in the rainforest, the topic of the paragraph is probably “rainforest animals.” If a paragraph is mostly about the effects of global warming, the topic of the paragraph is probably “global warming.”

Examples of topics in nursing textbooks include body systems, vital signs collection, and palliative care.

Main Idea and Supporting Details

The main idea of a paragraph can be identified by finding the topic sentence, which is usually the first sentence in a paragraph. The main idea is the overall point that the author is trying to make in the paragraph (the claim, message, or thesis). All of the other sentences in the paragraph support and develop the main idea.

To find the main idea of a paragraph, ask yourself:

What is the author talking about in this paragraph?
What is the overall point that the author is trying to make?
What are the supporting details in the paragraph?

For example, if the topic is vital signs collection, the main idea could be how to measure temperature or the importance of obtaining accurate blood pressures.

Supporting details can be found by looking for clues including examples, reasons, consequences, purpose, or results. These details help to explain, develop, or support the main idea.

For example, if the topic sentence is “Temperature can be measured in a number of ways,” the supporting details might explain how to measure temperature using a thermometer, how to take an oral temperature, or how to take a rectal temperature.

What’s the difference between a topic and the main idea?

The topic of this paragraph is the main idea. Example: Noise Pollution

The main idea is the overall point that the author is trying to make. Example: Ways to reduce noise pollution

The supporting details help to explain, develop, or support the main idea. Example: wear earplugs, lower the volume on technology, and shut the door when using noisy machines.

Identify Key Points

The key points in a paragraph are the most important pieces of information that the author is trying to communicate. Key points support details with evidence such as facts and descriptions.

To find the key points, ask yourself:

What are the most important ideas in this paragraph?
What information do I need to remember?
What details support the main idea?

For example, if the topic sentence is “Vital signs are important indicators of a patient’s health,” the key points might be that vital signs include temperature, pulse, respiratory rate, and blood pressure; or that vital signs can help to identify changes in a patient’s condition.

What’s the difference between key points and supporting details?

Key points are the most important ideas in a paragraph while supporting details help to explain or develop those ideas.

Explain Supporting Details of the Main Idea

The supporting details in a paragraph explain, develop, or support the main idea. For the ATI TEAS, it is important to identify what supporting details support the main idea and which details in the passage are irrelevant.

Irrelevant details in a passage can include ideas that are not clearly related to the main idea, ideas that are tangential or only marginally related, or information that is interesting but ultimately not useful in understanding the main idea. If you come across a detail that doesn’t seem to fit, ask yourself whether it is truly relevant or not.

An example of an irrelevant detail in a paragraph about global warming might be a description of the weather on a particular day. This information may be interesting, but it does not help to explain or develop the main idea of the paragraph, which is the effects of global warming.

Examples of relevant supporting details about global warming might be the increase in average global temperatures, the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps, and the rise in sea levels.

Paraphrase Key Points in a Multi-Paragraph Passges

In a multi-paragraph passage, the key points will often be summarized in each paragraph with supporting details. It is important to identify what the most important key points are in relation to the topic. This is a good opportunity to practice paraphrasing, which is the ability to express the same information using different words.

For example, if the key points in a passage about the American Revolution are that it was fought to gain independence from Britain and that it resulted in the formation of the United States of America, you might paraphrase these key points as follows:

The American Revolution was a conflict between the American colonies and Great Britain that resulted in America’s independence.
This war led to the formation of the United States of America as a sovereign nation.

Practice paraphrasing key points in order to improve your reading comprehension and test-taking skills.

Make Inferences and Draw Conclusions

Inferences versus Conclusions

An inference is an educated guess or assumption based on evidence of a topic in the text. This can also be referred to as reading between the lines.

For example, if you read that “John didn’t come to school today because he was sick,” you can infer that John is probably at home.

A conclusion is a statement reached after considering the evidence. It takes the evidence found in the text and considers the next logical step based on the details.

For example, if you read that “John didn’t come to school today because he was sick,” you can conclude that John will probably not be at the school’s upcoming football game.

Explicit and Implicit Evidence

Explicit evidence is information that is stated directly in the text. There is no confusion regarding what the text means.

For example, if you read that “The doctor diagnosed John with the flu,” the evidence is explicit and there is no room for interpretation.

Implicit evidence is information that is implied or suggested by the text, but not stated directly. This type of evidence requires you to make an inference in order to understand what the text is trying to say.

For example, if you read that “John didn’t come to school today,” the evidence is implicit because it is not stated explicitly that John is sick.

Drawing Logical Conclusions

Once you have considered the evidence in the text, you can draw logical conclusions based on what is stated.

If you read that “John didn’t come to school today because he was sick,” you can logically conclude that John is probably at home. You can also logically conclude that John will probably not be at the school’s upcoming football game.

Demonstrate Comprehension of Written Directions

Identify Words and Phrases that Signify Order and Relationship

Procedural texts are instructions that tell you how to do something typically through a sequence of steps. They often include words and phrases like “first,” “next,” “then,” “after that,” and “finally.” These words and phrases signify the order in which you perform steps.

For example, if you read a recipe that says “first, preheat the oven,” you know that you should preheat the oven before doing anything else.

If you read a set of instructions that says “next, put the chicken in the pan,” you know that you should put the chicken in the pan after you preheat the oven.

Other words and phrases that signify order and relationship include “before,” “after,” “during,” “while,” and “since.”

These words and phrases can help you understand the order of events in a text.

Identify Priorities in a Set of Directions

Directions are often provided in list formats either through bulleted or numbered priority. When you are given a set of directions, it is important to identify the priorities by using signal words. This will help you understand what is most important to do and what can be done in any order.

For example, if you are given the following set of directions:

first, take out the garbage
next, do your homework
then, take a shower
finally, eat dinner

The priorities are “first, take out the garbage” and “next, do your homework.” These are the most important things to do and should be done in that order. The other two tasks can be done in any order.

You may also come across instructions that have no signal words to signify priority. In these cases, you will need to use your best judgment to determine what is most important.

For example, if you are given the following set of directions with no signal words:

make your bed
brush your teeth
eat breakfast

In this case, you can use your best judgment to decide what the priorities are. One possible order could be “brush your teeth, eat breakfast, make your bed.”

Another possible order could be “eat breakfast, brush your teeth, make your bed.”

Remember, the goal is to demonstrate your comprehension of written directions, not to follow a set of instructions perfectly.

Identify Missing Information and Contraindications

In an ideal scenario, you will be provided a list of directions that include all performing tasks that is consistent and logical. Sometimes you are given a set of instructions that may be missing information or you may be unfamiliar with the procedure. This missing information can be implied or stated explicitly.

Sometimes directions can be contraindicatory without missing information. These directions can include signal words like either/or options.

For example, the directions may say “put either the chicken or the beef in the pan.” In this case, you would put only one or the other in the pan, not both.

If there are no signal words, you will need to use your best judgment to determine what can be done simultaneously and what needs to be done in a specific order.

For example, the directions may say “put the chicken in the pan and turn on the oven.” In this case, you would put the chicken in the pan and turn on the oven at the same time.

However, the directions may say “put the chicken in the pan and then turn on the oven.” In this case, you would put the chicken in the pan and then turn on the oven after the chicken is already in the pan.

It is important to never assume steps are optional unless the text explicitly states that a step is an option.

Locate Specific Information in a Passage

Finding Relevant Information to Solve a Problem

When you are trying to find specific information in a text, there are a few steps you can take to help you locate the information quickly and efficiently.

First, you should reread the question or problem to make sure you understand what information you are looking for. Ask yourself “What problem am I trying to solve or what decision am I attempting to make?”

Then, scan the text for keywords that are related to the information you are looking for.

Once you have found the keywords, read the sentences around those keywords to find the information you are looking for.

If you are still having trouble finding the information, try reading the passage in its entirety.

Asking Questions to Determine Missing Information

It is important to read the passage and understand what information you are needing to complete the passage. If you are still having trouble finding the information, try asking yourself some questions about what you are looking for.

For example, if you are looking for information about how long it will take to complete a task, you can ask yourself “How much time is needed?” or “What is the time frame?”

If you are looking for a specific number, you can ask yourself “How many?”

Asking questions like who, what, when, where, and how can help determine what information is missing.

Using Textual Features to Navigate Information

Textual features are the different ways an author organizes information in a text. These features can help you locate specific information quickly and efficiently. Examples include glossaries, indexes, and table of contents; headings and subheadings; and sidebars, footnotes, and legends.

Glossaries, Indexes, and Tables of Contents

In longer passages, you can identify relevant information using the glossaries, indexes, and tables of contents to help you locate specific information.

Glossaries are an alphabetical list of terms and their definitions. This resource tends to be located in the back of a book.

Table of Contents and Indexes are a list of topics and the page numbers where those topics are located. The Table of Contents is usually located in the front of a book while the index is located in the back of the book.

Headings and Subheading

Headings are the titles of each section in a passage. These are usually big and bold.

Subheadings are located within sections and can help you identify relevant information.

Headings and subheadings break up text and organize it by the main idea and topic. This feature allows you to skim through the passage and go directly to the information you need.

For example, a heading may be “The History of the American Revolution” and a subheading maybe “The Causes of the American Revolution.”

Sidebars, Footnotes, and Legends

Sidebars are boxes of text that are located to the side of the main text and are often used in history textbooks. They usually provide additional information that is related to the main text.

Underlined, boldfaced, and italicized text features can help you identify relevant information; however, can be confusing at times since these features can be used in a variety of ways. You may need to ask yourself if these features are highlighting a title, quotation, new topic, or organizing information.

Footnotes are small pieces of text located at the bottom of a page and provide more in-depth details about a topic. Footnotes typically include numbers in the superscript.

Legends are small pictures or symbols that are located next to a table or graph. These help explain what the table or graph is about and reduce clutter. Typically, you will see legends on map interpretations.

Analyze and Interpret Charts and Graphs

Locating Information in a Graph to Solve a Problem

When looking at a graph, it is important to note the title, labels on both the x and y-axis, and any other relevant information. This will help you understand what the graph is trying to show. After understanding what the graph is about, you can begin looking for specific information.

Let’s say you’re looking at a graph about the number of hours of sleep people get each night. The title of the graph is “Sleep Habits of Americans.” The x-axis is labeled “Number of Hours of Sleep” and the y-axis is labeled “Percentage of People.”

From this graph, you can determine that the average American sleeps around seven hours each night. You can also see that a majority of people sleep between six and eight hours each night.

Interpreting Graphic Representations of Ideas to Solve Problems

Identifying features and information in graphic representations can help solve problems if you are able to interpret the information. Common elements of a map include title, legend, and scale.

The title of the map will tell you what the map is representing. The legend will explain what the symbols on the map represent. The scale tells you the relationship between the distance on the map and the actual distance.

For example, a map of your town may have the title “Downtown Map of Anytown, USA.” The legend may have symbols that represent different businesses such as a restaurant, grocery store, or bank. The scale might say “One inch equals one mile.”

This information can help you solve a problem because you are able to identify where certain businesses are located and how far away they are from each other.

Diagrams are another graphic representation that carries in their design their purpose and contains titles, subheadings, summaries, descriptions, images representing ideas, content vocabulary, and steps in a process.

Biased or Misleading Information in Graphics

It is important to be aware that some information in a graphic may be biased or misleading. The creator of the graphic may have included only certain information to support their own ideas or beliefs. They may also have left out important information that does not support their views.

It is important to be critical of the information you see in a graphic and to look for other sources that confirm or deny the information.

For example, let’s say you see a graph that shows the number of people who support gun control in the United States. The graph only shows data from one source and does not include data from other sources.

Using Graphics to Strengthen Arguments

Graphics can be used to support arguments by providing visual evidence. For example, if you are writing a paper about the number of people who support gun control in the United States, you could include a graph that shows the data.

Including a graphic in your argument can make it more persuasive because it provides visual evidence to support your claim.

Using this tool can provide your audience with a sense of logic, emotion, and/or morality in the graphic.

Interpret Events in a Sequence

Identify and Evaluating Phrases that Indicate a Sequence of Events

When you are trying to understand a sequence of events, it can be helpful to look for phrases that indicate the order of the events. These phrases are called “signal phrases.”

Signal phrases can be found in both written and spoken language. For example, the signal phrase “first,” indicates that the event you are about to hear or read about happened before any other events.

Other signal phrases include “second,” “next,” “then,” and “finally.”

It is important to be able to identify signal phrases so that you can understand the sequence of events.

Identify Language that provides Cohesion in Ordering Events

In addition to signal phrases, there is also language that can provide cohesion in ordering events. This type of language includes words and phrases such as “in addition,” “moreover,” “furthermore,” and “however.”

This type of language can help you connect the events in a sequence. For example, if you hear the signal phrase “first” followed by the cohesive phrase “in addition,” you know that the event you are about to hear about happened at the same time as the first event.

Cohesion adverbs can include when, how often, and length of time.

When cohesion words can include “today,” “tomorrow,” “now,” and “last month”
How Often cohesion words can include “always,” “occasionally,” and “seldom”
Length of Time cohesion words can include “all month,” “all season,” and “all week”

Drawing Conclusions Based on a Series of Events

Once you have identified the signal and cohesion phrases, you can start to draw conclusions about the events in the sequence.

For example, if you hear the signal phrase “first” followed by the cohesive phrase “in addition,” you know that the event you are about to hear about happened at the same time as the first event.

You can also use the signal and cohesion phrases to make predictions about future events. For example, if you hear the signal phrase “next” followed by the cohesive phrase ” moreover,” you can predict that the event you are about to hear about will happen after the event that was just mentioned.

Signal and cohesion phrases can also be used to compare and contrast events. For example, if you hear the signal phrase “however,” you know that the event you are about to hear about is different from the event that was just mentioned.

Identifying Gaps in a Sequence of Events

There may be times when you come across a sequence of events that has a gap. A gap is an event that is missing from the sequence.

For example, if you are reading a story and the protagonist goes to bed, but there is no mention of what happens when he wakes up, there is a gap in the sequence of events.

In order to fill in the gaps, you can use your knowledge of the world and your own experiences.

For example, if you know that people generally wake up in the morning and brush their teeth, you can assume that this is what happened in the story.

You can also use your prior knowledge to make predictions about future events.

For example, if you know that people generally eat breakfast after they wake up, you can predict that this is what will happen in the story.

If you come across a sequence of events that has a gap, you can use your knowledge of the world and your own experiences to fill in the missing information.

ATI TEAS Reading: Learning Craft and Structure for Test Success

Nurse Cheung — Sat, 07 Jan 2023 17:15:22 +0000

If you’re reading this, there’s a good chance you’re taking the ATI TEAS Reading test. And if that’s the case, then you know that craft and structure are two of the most important factors in this exam.

In this blog post, we’ll discuss what these terms mean and how you can learn to apply them to your own reading comprehension skills. We’ll also provide some tips and strategies for improving your score on the ATI TEAS Reading test!

Objectives for Craft and Structure

Total scored items on ATI TEAS: 9 questions out of 39

Distinguish Between Fact and Opinion to Identify Misconceptions and Biases

Recognizing Factual Writing Supported by Evidence

When information is presented as factual in a text, the reader must be able to trust that the information is accurate and trustworthy.

To determine whether a statement is a fact or opinion, look for clues in the text itself.

Is the author citing specific evidence to support the claim?
Are they using language that indicates they are sharing their own opinion?
Are their citations to support the facts?

For example, let’s say you come across the following sentence in a passage: “The sun is the largest star in our solar system.” This is a fact. We know this to be true because it is supported by scientific evidence.

Now, let’s say you come across the following sentence: “I think the sun is the most beautiful star in our solar system.” This is an opinion. The author is sharing their own personal thoughts on the matter.

When you’re reading a text, it’s important to be able to identify these differences. This will help you understand the author’s point of view, and it will also help you spot any misconceptions or biases.

There are various types of sources and examples in the text to show evidence of fact including print and electronic sources, personal interviews, and observations.

Credible sources are those that come from reliable authors and contain accurate information.

The source should also be up-to-date.

Identifying an Author's Point of View and ViewPoint

An author’s point of view is their perspective or opinion on a particular issue.

This can be expressed directly, or it can be implied through the language and tone of the text.

For example, an author might use the first-person point of view to express their own opinion on a topic. This can be identified with the use of “I,” “me,” and “we” pronouns.

They might also use a third-person point of view to discuss someone else’s opinion or to present objective information. This can be identified with the use of “he,” “she,” and “they” pronouns.

The key is to be able to identify the author’s point of view so that you can understand their argument.

Viewpoint is similar to point of view, but it refers to the biases that an author may have.

These can be based on their personal experiences, their cultural background, or their political beliefs.

It’s important to be able to identify these biases so that you can understand the author’s argument and critically evaluate the information they are presenting.

Author's Tone and Bias

The tone of a text is the overall attitude that the author has towards the subject matter.

This can be positive, negative, or neutral. The ATI TEAS test may also use words such as joyful, detached, and ominous.

To determine the tone, it may be best to consider the event, context, or circumstance behind the text.

For example, an author might have a positive tone towards the subject of education. This can be identified through the use of positive words and phrases such as “learning opportunities” and “the importance of education.”

On the other hand, an author might have a negative tone towards the subject of education. This can be identified through the use of negative words and phrases such as “the burden of homework” and “the pressure of standardized tests.”

The key is to be able to identify the author’s tone so that you can better understand their argument.

Bias is when an author shows a preference for one thing over another.

This can be based on their personal experiences, their cultural background, or their political beliefs.

For example, an author might be biased towards the subject of education because they believe that it is the key to success. This can be identified through the use of phrases such as “education is the key to success” and “a good education is essential.”

On the other hand, an author might be biased towards the subject of education because they believe that it is a waste of time. This can be identified through the use of phrases such as “education is a waste of time” and “you don’t need the education to be successful.”

Detecting Bias vs Stereotypes

It’s important to be able to distinguish between bias and stereotypes.

Bias is when an author shows a preference for one thing over another.

Stereotypes are oversimplifications of groups of people that are based on preconceived notions.

For example, an author might be biased towards the subject of education because they believe that it is the key to success.

On the other hand, an author might stereotype people who are educated as being snobby and arrogant.

How can readers detect bias and stereotypes in a text?

One way to do this is to consider the language that the author is using.

For example, biased language might include words and phrases such as “should,” “must,” and “everyone.”

The stereotypical language might include words and phrases such as “all,” “every,” and “never.”

Another way to detect bias and stereotypes is to consider the author’s point of view.

If the author is presenting their argument from a personal perspective, then they are more likely to be biased.

If the author is presenting their argument from a neutral perspective, then they are less likely to be biased.

Distinguish between Fact and Opinion

It’s important to be able to distinguish between fact and opinion.

A fact is a statement that can be proven to be true.

An opinion is a statement that reflects the author’s beliefs, values, or feelings.

For example, the statement “Education is the key to success” is an opinion.

The statement “A good education is essential” is a fact.

To determine whether a statement is a fact or an opinion, you can ask yourself two questions:

Can the statement be proven to be true?
Does the statement reflect the author’s beliefs, values, or feelings?

If you can answer “yes” to the first of these questions, then the statement is a fact. It must be supported by credible and reliable resources.

If you can answer “yes” to the second of these questions, then the statement is an opinion. Opinions may mislead or persuade a reader depending on the context.

Interpret the Meaning of Words and Phrases using Context

Using Context Clues

When you encounter an unfamiliar word, you can use the context to determine its meaning.

Context clues are words or phrases that surround an unfamiliar word and provide information about its meaning.

There are four types of context clues:

Definition: The author directly defines the word or phrase.

Example: The word “bias” is defined as “a preference for one thing over another.”

Restatement: The author restates the word or phrase using a different language.

Example: Carnivores, that is, meat-eaters, are at the top of the food chain.

Contrast: The author provides an opposite of the word or phrase.

Example: While Carlos is hardworking, his indolent sister spends more time watching television than working.

Inference: The author provides information that can be inferred from the word or phrase.

Example: Jennifer’s belligerence surprised everyone. She threw her phone across the room and pushed through the door.

The Effect of Word Choice

The author’s choice of words can have a significant effect on the meaning of a text. The author’s tone (author’s feelings towards the text) can affect the mood (the reader’s feelings towards the text).

For example, the word “success” can have a positive or negative connotation.

The definition of the word “success” is “the achievement of something desired, planned, or attempted.” The connotation of the word “success” is positive.

The word “essential” has a positive connotation, while the word “good” has a neutral connotation.

The word “key” has a positive connotation, while the word “prerequisite” has a negative connotation.

When you are reading, it is important to be aware of the effect that word choice can have on the meaning of a text.

Figurative Language

Figurative language is language that is not meant to be taken literally.

Figurative language can be used to make a point more clearly, to make a comparison, or to add interest to a text.

There are four types of figurative language: simile, metaphor, personification, and hyperbole.

A simile is a figure of speech that uses the words “like” or “as” to make a comparison.

For example, “She’s as busy as a bee.”

A metaphor is a figure of speech that uses one thing to represent another.

For example, “She’s a fireball.”

Personification is a figure of speech that gives human characteristics to nonhuman objects.

For example, “The wind was howling.”

Hyperbole is a figure of speech that uses exaggeration to make a point.

For example, “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.”

As you are reading, be on the lookout for figurative language. When you come across a figure of speech, try to determine what the author is trying to communicate.

Evaluate the Author's Purpose in a Given Text

Determining and Drawing Inferences about the Author's Purpose

The author’s purpose is the reason why the author wrote the text. The author’s purpose can be to inform, entertain, describe, explain or persuade.

In order to determine the author’s purpose, you need to look at the text as a whole and consider the following:

The topic of the text
The audience
The tone
The word choice
The figurative language
The organization

Once you have considered all of the above, you should be able to identify the author’s purpose.

Informative Writing

The purpose of informative writing is to inform the reader about a topic.

When you are reading informational text, look for facts and details that support the author’s claims.

The author should be unbiased and present both sides of the argument if there is one.

Persuasive Writing

The purpose of persuasive writing is to persuade the reader to do something or to believe something.

When you are reading persuasive text, look for the author’s point of view.

The author should be biased and present only one side of the argument.

The author will use a variety of techniques to try to persuade the reader. These techniques can include:

Logical reasoning
Emotional appeal
Use of facts and statistics
Testimonials
Expert opinion

Entertaining Writing

The purpose of entertaining writing is to entertain the reader.

When you are reading entertaining text, look for the author’s use of humor, irony, and sarcasm.

The author may also use a variety of literary devices to add interest to the text such as plot, setting, characterization, conflict, and themes.

Descriptive Writing

The purpose of descriptive writing is to describe a person, place, thing, or event.

When you are reading descriptive text, look for the author’s use of sensory details.

The author should use vivid language to create a mental image for the reader by describing people, things, places, and events.

Expository Writing

The purpose of expository writing is to explain a concept, steps in a process, or idea.

When you are reading expository text, look for the author’s use of definitions, examples, and non-examples.

The author should present the information in a clear and concise manner.

ATI TEAS Reading: Learning Integration of Knowledge and Ideas for Test Success

Nurse Cheung — Sat, 07 Jan 2023 17:15:19 +0000

ATI TEAS Reading is a section on the test that assesses a test taker’s ability to read, understand, and integrate knowledge from various sources. The reading passages can be dense and difficult to comprehend, but with the right preparation, it is possible to score well on this section of the test.

In this blog post, we will discuss some tips and strategies for mastering ATI TEAS Reading.

Objectives for Integration of Knowledge and Ideas

Total scored items on ATI TEAS: 15 questions out of 39

Using Evidence from the Text to make Predictions, Inferences, and Draw Conclusions

Citing Evidence from the Text

Effective authors cite evidence and resources to support their ideas about a text.

When you are taking the ATI TEAS, be on the lookout for how an author supports his or her claims. Skim the passage to find out what resources the author uses. These could be statistics, expert opinions, or examples from the text itself. After you have identified the evidence being used, ask yourself whether or not it is effective.

An effective piece of evidence should be:

believable
relevant
specific

If the evidence meets all three of these criteria, then it is likely that the author’s claim is valid.

If you are having trouble finding evidence to support a claim, try looking for keywords and phrases such as “according to,” “for example,” or “in conclusion.” These words and phrases will help you to identify where the author is making a claim and what evidence he or she is using to support it.

Now let’s practice finding evidence in a passage. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.

According to a study by the National Education Association, students who receive homework help are more likely to succeed in school. The study found that homework help can improve a student’s grades and increase their chances of graduating from high school.

What evidence does the author use to support the claim that homework help can improve a student’s grades?

The author uses a study by the National Education Association to support the claim that homework help can improve a student’s grades. This study found that homework help can improve a student’s grades and increase their chances of graduating from high school.

Making Predictions from the Text

In order to make predictions about what will happen next in a story, you need to be able to understand the events that have already taken place. This means that you will need to be able to identify the main idea of the passage as well as the supporting details. The main idea is typically what the passage is about, while the supporting details are the specific facts and examples that help to explain the main idea.

Once you have identified the main idea and supporting details of the passage, you can begin to make predictions about what will happen next. To do this, you will need to use your prior knowledge and experience to make inferences based on the information in the passage.

For example, let’s say you are reading a passage about a character who is lost in the woods. The character has been walking for hours and has not seen any sign of civilization. Based on this information, you can infer that the character is likely to be tired and hungry. You can also predict that the character will continue to walk until he or she finds a way out of the woods.

Now let’s practice making predictions from a passage. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.

The sun was setting, and the sky was turning a deep red. John had been walking for hours, and he was starting to feel tired. He had been following the river upstream, but it was getting harder and harder to see the path.

What can you predict will happen to John?

You can predict that John will continue to follow the river upstream until he finds a way out of the woods. He will likely be tired and hungry by the time he finds a way out. He may also have to spend the night in the woods if he cannot find a way out before it gets dark.

Drawing Conclusions from the Text

In order to draw conclusions from a text, you need to again be able to understand the main idea and supporting details of the passage. You will also need to be able to make inferences based on the information in the passage.

A conclusion is a statement that you make about something after you have analyzed the information that you have. In order to draw a conclusion, you will need to look at all of the evidence and decide what it means.

For example, let’s use the same example from before about a character who is lost in the woods. The character has been walking for hours and has not seen any sign of civilization. Based on this information, you could conclude that the character is in a remote area.

Now let’s practice drawing conclusions from a passage. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.

What conclusion can you draw about John’s location?

You can conclude that John is in a remote area. He has been walking for hours and has not seen any sign of civilization. This means that he is likely far away from any towns or cities.

Compare and Contrast the Themes expressed in the text

Identifying a Theme

A theme is the central idea or message of a text. It is what the author is trying to communicate to the reader. Themes can be stated or implied.

To identify the theme of a text, you need to look at the evidence in the text and decide what it all means.

For example, let’s say you are reading a text about a character who is trying to decide whether or not to go to college. The character is considering the pros and cons of going to college. The evidence in the text supports the idea that the character is trying to make a decision about whether or not college is worth it.

The theme of the text would be “making decisions.” The author is trying to communicate to the reader that making decisions is difficult, and sometimes you have to weigh the pros and cons of your options.

To identify a theme, you must pay close attention to the story elements including narration, setting, characters, dialogue, and plot.

Narration is the way the story is told. The narrator is the person telling the story. The narrator can be a character in the story or an omniscient third party.
Setting is the time and place of the story. The setting can influence the events that take place in the story thus enhancing the overall plot.
Characters are the people or animals in the story. The development of the characters can reveal information about the theme of the story.
Dialogue is the conversation between the characters. The dialogue can also provide information about the theme of the story.
Plot is the sequence of events that take place in the story.

Let’s practice identifying themes in texts. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.

What is the theme of the passage?

The theme of this passage is “perseverance.” John has been walking for hours, and he is starting to feel tired. He has been following the river upstream, but it is getting harder and harder to see the path. Even though it is difficult, John continues to walk upstream. This shows that he is a determined and persevering individual.

Similarities and Differences across Themes

Now that you know how to identify themes in texts, let’s practice comparing and contrasting the themes expressed in two texts.

Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow.

Passage A

Passage B

Mary was walking home from school when she saw a kitten stuck in a tree. The kitten was meowing and looked scared. Mary climbed the tree and rescued the kitten.

What is the theme of passage A?

The theme of passage A is “perseverance.” John has been walking for hours, and he is starting to feel tired. He has been following the river upstream, but it is getting harder and harder to see the path. Even though it is difficult, John continues to walk upstream. This shows that he is a determined and persevering individual.

What is the theme of passage B?

The theme of passage B is “compassion.” Mary sees a kitten that is stuck in a tree and scared. Even though it is not her responsibility, Mary decides to help the kitten. This shows that she is a compassionate person.

How are the themes of passage A and passage B similar?

The themes of passage A and passage B are similar because they both deal with characters helping others. In passage A, John is helping himself by walking upstream. In passage B, Mary is helping the kitten by rescuing it from the tree.

How are the themes of passage A and passage B different?

The themes of passage A and passage B are different because of the motives of the characters. John is walking upstream because he wants to get to the other side. Mary is rescuing the kitten because she wants to help it. John is helping himself while Mary is helping someone else.

Evaluate an Argument

Identify Claims and Counterclaims

When you are evaluating an argument, it is important to be able to identify the claims and counterclaims. The claim is the main argument that the author is trying to make. The counterclaim is the argument that goes against the claim.

For example, let’s say that the author’s claim is “global warming is real and caused by human activity.” A counterclaim to this could be “global warming is not real, or it is not caused by human activity.”

What are the three steps you should take when evaluating an argument?

In evaluating arguments, you want to identify the author’s topics. Second, you want to ask yourself about the claim or opinion being expressed in the topic. Lastly, you want to ensure that the author also addresses counterclaims for that topic.

If addressing the counterclaims does not exist, then the text is overall week and credibility is lost with the audience.

Evaluating Sources and Evidence

When you are evaluating an argument, it is important to be able to identify the sources and evidence. The source is the person, book, article, or website that the author is using to support their claim. The evidence is the specific information from the source that supports the claim.

For example, let’s say that the author is using a book to support their claim. The source would be the book, and the evidence would be a specific quote or statistic from the book.

Examples of sources can include peer-reviewed, primary source, secondary, and tertiary sources.

Peer-reviewed is defined as published articles that have been evaluated and analyzed by experts on the topic.
Primary Source is defined as an original document or firsthand account. An example of a primary source is a letter written by Abraham Lincoln.
Secondary Source is defined as a document or account that interpretes or analyzes an event. Also known as a secondhand account of the events. An example of a secondary source is a biography of Abraham Lincoln.
Tertiary Source is defined as a document or account that compiles, organizes and summarizes a primary and secondary source. An example of a tertiary source is an encyclopedia.

When you are looking at sources, it is important to consider the credibility, accuracy, objectivity, and bias.

Analyzing Rhetorical Devices

Rhetorical devices are words or phrases that are used to persuade the audience. They are used to help the author make their point. There are three types of rhetorical devices: logos, ethos, and pathos.

Logos is defined as an appeal to logic. It is a way of convincing the audience with facts and reason.
Ethos is defined as an appeal to ethics. It is a way of convincing the audience with the author’s credibility.
Pathos is defined as an appeal to emotion. It is a way of convincing the audience by making them feel an emotional connection to the author or the topic.

An example of a logos would be if the author said “according to a study by the CDC,” this is an appeal to logic because they are using a credible source to back up their claim.

An example of ethos would be if the author said “I have been studying this topic for 20 years,” this is an appeal to ethics because they are trying to show the audience that they are credible.

An example of pathos would be if the author said “imagine how you would feel if you were the one affected by this,” this is an appeal to emotion because they are trying to make the audience feel empathy.

Evaluating and Integrating Data from Multiple Sources Across Various Formats

Selecting Relevant Data to Analyze

When you are evaluating data, it is important to select relevant data. This means that you want to choose data that is related to your topic.

For example, if you are writing about the effects of global warming, you would want to select data that is about the effects of global warming.

You also want to make sure that you select data from multiple sources. This will help you to get a more well-rounded view of the topic.

Analyzing Data Sources

Once you have selected the relevant data, you will want to analyze it. This means that you will want to look at the data and see what it is saying.

You will want to look at the data and see if there are any patterns. For example, if you are looking at data about the effects of global warming, you might notice that the effects are more pronounced in certain areas.

You will also want to look at the data and see if there are any trends. For example, if you are looking at data about the effects of global warming, you might notice that the effects are getting worse over time.

Two forms of data are quantitative and qualitative data.

Quantiative data is data that can be measured. For example, the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere.
Qualitative data is data that cannot be measured. For example, the effects of global warming on the environment.

Organizing Data from Various Sources

Once you have analyzed the data, you will want to organize it. This means that you will want to put the data into a format that is easy to understand.

One way to do this is to create a table or chart. This will help you to see the data in a more visually appealing way.

Another way to organize the data is putting the key topics in chronological order. This will help you to see the data in a more linear way.

Last way to organize data is by priority. Claims and evidence can be classified by low priority, validity, or usefulness.

Low priority claims are those that are not essential to the argument. They can be cut without affecting the overall argument.
Valid claims are those that are supported by evidence.
Useful claims are those that help to support the argument and are relevant to the topic.

ATI TEAS Math: Number and Algebra – Tips to Boost Your Scores

Nurse Cheung — Sat, 07 Jan 2023 17:15:17 +0000

If you’re struggling with ATI TEAS Math: Numbers and Algebra, don’t worry – you’re not alone!

This section of the test can be tricky, but with a little bit of practice, you can boost your scores.

In this blog post, we will discuss some tips that will help you improve your performance on the ATI TEAS Math: Numbers and Algebra section. We’ll also provide a few practice problems to help get you started.

Objectives for Numbers and Algebra

Total scored items on ATI TEAS: 18 questions out of 34

Converting among non-negative fractions, decimals, and percentages

Relationship between the numerator and denominator in a fraction

Fractions can be written in the form a/b, where a and b are integers, and b is not equal to zero. Integers are the set of whole numbers and their opposites.

The bottom integer is called the denominator, and the top integer is called the numerator. The line between them represents division: a/b means “a divided by b.”

For example, in the fraction ¾, the numerator is three (it is on top), and the denominator is four (it is on the bottom).

How to Calculate a Percentage

A percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100. It is often denoted using the percent sign: %.

For example, 35% is equivalent to the decimal 0.35, or the fraction 35/100. To calculate a percentage, multiply the decimal by 100, or divide the fraction by 100 and reduce it to the lowest terms.

Identifying Place Values within Decimals

Every digit in a number has a place value associated with it. The place value of a digit tells you what that digit is worth in relation to other digits in the number.

For example, the number 1,234 has four digits with place values of ones, tens, hundreds, and thousands.

The digit in the one’s place is worth one (4), the digit in the tens place is worth ten (3), the digit in the hundreds place is worth one hundred (2), and the digit in the thousands place is worth one thousand (1).

To find the place value of a digit, look at its position in the number. The place value of the digit will be the base (ten, one hundred, one thousand, etc.) to which that position corresponds.

The decimal part of any number can be read using place values as well. The place values of the digits to the right of the decimal are tenths, hundredths, thousandths, and so on.

For example, in the decimal 0.35, the digit in the tenths place is worth one-tenth (0.3), the digit in the hundredths place is worth one-hundredth (0.05), and the digit in the thousandths place is worth one-thousandth.

Converting Fractions to Decimals and Percentages

To convert a fraction to a decimal, divide the numerator by the denominator.

For example, to convert the fraction ¾ to a decimal, divide three by four:

¾ = 0.75 (the answer is a decimal)

To convert a fraction to a percentage, multiply the decimal by 100.

For example, to convert the decimal 0.75 to a percent, multiply by 100:

0.75 = 75% (the answer is a percent)

Converting Decimals to Fractions

To convert a decimal to a fraction, divide the decimal by the place value of the decimal part and remove the decimal from the numerator.

For example, to convert the decimal 0.75 to a fraction, divide 0.75 by 100 (the last whole number is in the hundredths place value):

0.75 = 75/100 (the answer is a fraction).

Simplify the fraction into the lowest form: 75/100 = 3/4.

Another example is to covert the decimal 0.584 to a fraction, and divide 0.584 by 1000 (the last whole number is in the thousandths place).

0.584 = 584/1000 (the answer is a fraction).

Converting Percentages to Decimals and Fractions

To convert a decimal to a percentage, multiply by 100.

For example, to convert 75% to a decimal, divide 75 by 100:

75% = 0.75 (the answer is a decimal)

To convert a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100 and remove the percent sign from the numerator.

For example, to convert 75% to a fraction, divide 75 by 100:

75% = 75/100 (the answer is a fraction).

Simplify the fraction into the lowest terms: 75/100 = ¾.

Remember, a percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100. So, when you see the symbol %, think “divide by 100.”

Performing arithmetic operations with rational numbers (both positive and negative numbers)

Order of Operations

The Order of Operations is a set of rules that determine the order in which operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.) are performed in an expression.

The Order of Operations is often abbreviated as PEMDAS:

P = Parentheses first

E = Exponents (ie Powers and Square Roots, etc.)

MD = Multiplication and Division (left-to-right)

AS = Addition and Subtraction (left-to-right)

For example, consider the expression: 32 + 22

Which operation should be performed first, the addition or the exponentiation?

The answer is that the exponentiation should be done first because it has precedence over addition. That is, the operations within parentheses are always performed first, followed by exponentiation.

Therefore, the correct answer is 36.

Multiple-Step Problems

Here is another example:

24 ÷ 12 + 17 – 11

Which operation should be performed first, the division or addition?

The answer is that the division should be performed first because it has precedence over addition and subtraction. That is, the operations within parentheses are always performed first, followed by division, multiplication, addition, and subtraction (from left to right).

Therefore, the correct answer is 8.

Operations with Parentheses

Remember, the operations within parentheses are always performed first.

For example, consider the expression: (15 – 12) + 18 ÷ (21 – 11)

Which operation should be performed first?

The answer is that the operations within parentheses are always performed first. In this case, that means subtracting 12 from 15 and 11 from 21.

Therefore, the correct answer is 3 + 18 ÷ 10.

The next step is to divide 18 by 10 leaving 3 + 1.8.

The final answer is 4.8.

Compare and order rational numbers (both positive and negative)

Defining Rational Numbers and Irrational Numbers

Rational numbers are numbers that can be expressed as a fraction (a/b). A and b are both integers and the denominator is not zero. That is, they can be written as a ratio of two integers.

For example, some rational numbers are:

– ½ (this can be written as -25/50)
¾ (this can be written as 75/100)
0.125 (this can be written as 125/1000)
− 0.75 (this can be written as -75/100)
− 15 (this can be written as -15/100

Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be expressed as a fraction. That is, they cannot be written as a ratio of two integers.

For example, some irrational numbers are:

– π (this is approximately equal to 22/71)

– √16 (this is approximately equal to 25/41)

– e (this is approximately equal to 27/28)

Ordering Rational Numbers

Rational numbers can be ordered from least to greatest or greatest to least.

To order rational numbers from least to greatest, line them up in order from left to right. The numbers get larger as you go from left to right.

For example, the following numbers are listed in order from least to greatest:

-15, -0.75, 0, 0.125, ½, ¾

To order rational numbers from greatest to least, line them up in order from right to left. The numbers get larger as you go from right to left.

For example, the following numbers are listed in order from greatest to least:

0.125, ½, ¾, 0, -0.75, -15

When ordering negative numbers, the smaller the number, the larger it is. That is, the absolute value of a negative number is always less than the absolute value of a positive number.

Comparing Rational Numbers

Rational numbers can be compared by looking at their relative size. That is, which number is larger or smaller than the other?

For example, to compare the numbers -15 and -1. Because -15 is less than -1 the answer will be as follows.

-15 < -1

You can find the answer by using a number line and plotting the values. Therefore, the value that is farthest to the right on the number line is the greatest.

Symbols and Meanings of Comparing Rational Numbers

The following symbols are used when comparing rational numbers:

>, ≥, =, ≤, and <

The meanings of these symbols are as follows:

> (greater than)
≥ (greater than or equal to)
= (equal to)
≤ (less than or equal to)
≤ (less than)

Solving Equations with One Variable

Identify the Terms of an Algebraic Equation

An algebraic equation consists of terms such as a number, variables, or product of numbers. Terms can be separated by additional and subtraction signs.

Constant is defined as the number itself not attached to a variable
A Variable is a letter that represents an unknown quantity
A Coefficient is a number being multiplied by the variable

For example, the expression:

-15x – 18 = 30

has the following terms:

The constants are – 18 and 30
The variable is -15x
The coefficient in this equation is -15

Inverse Arithmetic Operations

The inverse of an arithmetic operation is the operation that “undoes” the original operation.

For example, the inverse of addition is subtraction and the inverse of multiplication is division.

The inverse operations of addition and subtraction are opposite of each other. The inverse operation of multiplication and division are also opposite of each other.

This is true because the operations “undo” each other.

Implement A Sequence of Steps to Solve Equations

To solve an equation, you need to find the value of the variable that makes the equation true.

This can be done by using inverse operations to isolate the variable on one side of the equation.

Once the variable is isolated, you can then use a number line or other methods to find the value of the variable.

Here is an example of solving an equation:

Original equation: x + 18 = 30

Inverse operation of addition: x + 18 – 18 = 30 – 18

Isolate the variable on one side: x = 30 – 18

x = 12

The value of x is 12.

This can be verified by substituting 12 for x in the original equation.

Solve Proportional Relationships (Equations and Inequalities) with One Variable

A proportional relationship is a relationship between two quantities in which the ratio of one quantity to another is constant, or when one fraction is equivalent to the other.

This constant is called the proportionality constant or the multiplier.

Proportional relationships can be represented in equation or inequality form.

To solve a proportion, you need to find the value of the variable that makes the proportion true.

This can be done by using inverse operations to isolate the variable on one side of the proportion.

Once the variable is isolated, you can then use a number line or other methods to find the value of the variable.

Here is an example of solving a proportion:

Original equation: 6x = 19

Inverse operation of addition: 6x ÷ 6 = 19 ÷ 6

Isolate the variable on one side: x = 19 ÷ 6

x = 19/6

The value of x is 19/6 or 3.17.

Solve Real-World Problems using One or Multiple Step Operations with Real Numbers

Problem Solving Plan Word Problems

The first step in solving a word problem is to read the problem carefully and identify the information that is given and the information that is needed.

The next step is to identify the problem type and the equation that needs to be solved.

Once the equation is identified, you can then solve the equation.

The last step is to check your work by substituting the answer back into the original problem.

Here is an example of a word problem:

A plumber charges $25 for a service call plus $50 per hour of service. Write and solve an equation to find the cost of a plumber’s service if he works for h hours.

The first step is to read the problem and identify the given information and the needed information.
The given information is that a plumber charges $25 for a service call plus $50 per hour of service. The needed information is the cost of the plumber’s service if he works for h hours.
The next step is to identify the problem type and the equation that needs to be solved.
The last step is to check your work by substituting the answer back into the original problem.

The problem type is a linear equation and the equation that needs to be solved is C = 25 + 50h.

Once the equation is identified, you can solve for h.

C = 25 + 50h

If the plumber works for h hours, the cost of his service will be $25 for the service call plus $50 per hour of service, or $25 + $50h.

For example, if the plumber works for two hours, the cost of his service will be $25 + $50(two hours) = $125.

You can check your work by substituting the value of h back into the original equation.

Solve Word Problems Using Percentages

Percentages are a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100.

Percentage numbers increase or decrease in word problems.

To solve a word problem that involves a percentage increase or decrease, you need to identify the following information:

The original amount
The percentage increase or decrease
The new amount

Once you have this information, you can set up and solve an equation.

Here is an example of a word problem that involves a percentage decrease:

For example, if a store is offering a 20% discount on an item that originally costs $100, the new price of the item would be 80% of the original price, or $80.

Here is an example of a word problem that involves a percentage increase:

The population of a town increased by 12% from 2010 to 2011.

The population of the town in 2010 was 20,000.

What was the population of the town in 2011?

The original amount is the population of the town in 2010, which is 20,000.

The percentage increase is 12%.

The new amount is the population of the town in 2011.

To find the new amount, you need to set up and solve an equation.

The equation would be as follows:

20,000 + 12% = new amount

Once you have set up the equation, you can solve for the new amount.

20,000 + 12%(original population) = new amount

20,000 + 0.12(20,000) = new amount

20,000 + 2400 = new amount

22,400 = new amount

The population of the town in 2011 was 22,400.

Apply Estimation Strategies and Rounding Rules to Word Problems

Metric Measurements

The metric system is a system of measurement that is used in many countries around the world.

The most common units of measurement in the metric system are:

Length – meters (m)

Weight or Mass – grams (g)

Capacity or Volume – liters (L)

Degrees Celsius (C)

It’s important to note: area is measured by square units and volume is measured by cubic units.

Estimation and Rounding of Numbers

One way to increase your speed and accuracy on the ATI TEAS Math Number and Algebra section is to practice estimation and rounding of numbers.

This will help you to quickly see what the answer should be in your head, without having to do a lot of calculations.

For example, if you are asked to round the number 45.678 to the nearest whole number, you would first look at the number in the ones place, which is 5.

You will round up if the number in the tenths place is greater than or equal to five, and you will round down if the number in the tenths place is less than five.

Next, the number in the tenths place is 6, as this number is greater than 4 we can round up our whole number to 46.

You can use estimation strategies and rounding rules to quickly solve word problems.

Solving Word Problems involving Proportions

Introduction to Proportions

A proportion is a ratio in fraction form equal to another ratio in fraction form.

Writing and Solving a Proportion

The following steps will help you to set up and solve a proportion:

Read the word problem carefully and identify all of the information that is given.
Draw a picture or diagram to help you visualize the problem.
Determine what quantity you are looking for in the problem (this is the unknown quantity).
Identify two equivalent ratios in the problem.
Write a proportion using the equivalent ratios.
Cross multiply to solve the proportion.
Check your answer to make sure it makes sense in the context of the problem.

Here is an example of a word problem that can be solved using a proportion:

The ratio of dogs to cats in a shelter is 12 to 25.

If there are 100 animals in the shelter, how many of them are dogs?

In this problem, the unknown quantity is the number of dogs in the shelter.

The two equivalent ratios are 12 to 25 and x to 100.

The proportion would be set up as follows:

12/25 = x/100

To solve the proportion, you will need to cross multiply.

12(100) = 25x

1200 = 25x

48 = x

There are 48 dogs in the shelter.

Direct Proportions and Constant of Proportionality

A proportion is a direct proportion if the two equivalent ratios are in the form y = kx.

The constant of proportionality (k) is the number that represents the relationship between two variables.

Examples of direct proportional equations are y = 3x, y = 10x, y = x/6

Examples of not directly prpoortional equations are y = 5x + 10, y = x-15, y = 5

Solving Word Problems using Ratios and Rates of Change

What is a ratio?

A ratio is a comparison of two numbers by division. For example, 4:5 or 4/5.

What is Rate, Unit Rate, and Rate of Change?

A rate is a ratio that is used to compare two different units.

For example, 60 miles per hour (mph) or 60 miles: An hour.

A unit rate is a rate in which the second number in the ratio is one unit. You can find the unit rate by dividing the numerator by the denominator.

For example, 60 miles per 2 hours or 30 miles per hour.

A rate of change is the speed at which something is happening. It can also be known as the unit rate.

For example, the rate of change in population, the rate of change in temperature, or the rate of change in distance.

Using Ratio and Rate of Change to Solve Problems

When solving problems, it is often helpful to think about the relationships between different quantities in terms of ratios or rates of change.

For example, if you know that the ratio of dogs to cats in a shelter is 12 to 25, and you also know that there are 100 animals in the shelter, you can use these relationships to solve for the number of dogs in the shelter.

You can also use rates of change to solve problems.

For example, if you know that the average rate of change in population over a period of time is 0.02%, you can use this information to predict the population of a city in the future.

These problems can be easily solved with the representation of a graph to plot out your points. These points may form a slope of a line.

Solving Word Problems using Expressions, Equations and Inequalities

What are expressions, equations, and inequalities?

An expression is a mathematical phrase that can contain numbers, variables, and operators. Examples are 10-2y, x, 4(x – 16)

An equation is an expression that contains an equal sign. Examples are 10 – y = 20, x = 10, 3x – 10 = 4x +8

An inequality is an expression that contains an inequality sign (<, >, ≤, ≥).

As we have previously discussed how to solve problems with expression and equations, we will take a closer look at solving problems with inequalities.

Solving Problems with Inequalities

Inequalities are mathematical phrases that contain an inequality sign (<, >, ≤, ≥).

They can be used to represent situations where one value is greater than or less than another value.

For example, the inequality x > y can be read as “x is greater than y.”

Inequalities can be used to solve problems by representing the relationships between different quantities in a problem.

For example, x + 2 > 12.

Subtract 2 from both sides: x + 2 – 2 = 12 – 2

Solution: x > 10

There are also times when you may reverse the direction of the inequality if we are multiplying or dividing negative numbers.

For example: -2y < -8

Divide both sides of -2 to isolate for y: -2y/-2 > -8/-2

Solution: y > 4

It is important that we reverse the inequality when we multiple or divide by a negative number.

ATI TEAS Math: Measurement and Data – Tips to Boost Your Scores

Nurse Cheung — Sat, 07 Jan 2023 17:15:14 +0000

The ATI TEAS Math Measurement and Data section can be difficult, but with a little preparation, you can boost your scores.

In this blog post, we will discuss some tips that will help you improve your performance on the exam. We will cover topics such as measurement, data interpretation, and problem-solving.

Follow these tips and you will be ready to ace the ATI TEAS Math Measurement and Data section!

Objectives for Measurement and Data

Total scored items on ATI TEAS: 16 questions out of 34

Interpret Information from Charts, Tables, and Graphs

Types of Graphical displays

The ATI TEAS will use a variety of graphical displays and you must have the ability to interpret information from charts, tables, and graphs.

Some of the displays you may see include:

Cartesian coordinate graphs: These graphs will have a pair of perpendicular lines, called axes, that intersect at a point called the origin. The axes are used to locate points on the graph.
Scatter plots: A scatter plot is a graph that shows the relationship between two variables. The variables are plotted as points on the graph and the relationship between the variables is shown.
Line graphs: A line graph is a graph that shows information that changes over time.
Pie charts: A pie chart is a graph that is broken into sectors that each represent a proportion of a whole.
Bar graphs: A bar graph is a diagram in which numerical values of variables are represented by the height or length of rectangles.

How to interpret graphs and tables

When you are looking at a graph or table, it is important to be able to identify the following:

The title of the graph or table: This will give you an idea of what the data is about.
The axes: The x-axis (horizontal axis) and y-axis (vertical axis) will tell you what the variables are.
The data: The data is what is being plotted on the graph or listed in the table.
The scale: The scale is the range of values that are being used.
The units: The units are the measurements that are being used.
The trend: The trend is the overall pattern of the data.
The quadrant: The quadrant is the area of the graph that is divided by the axes.

Evaluate the information of Data Sets, Charts, Tables, and Graphs using Statistics

Mean, Median, and Mode

The mean is the average of a set of numbers. To find the mean, add all of the numbers together and then divide by the number of items in the set.

An example of finding a mean is as follows: You have a set of numbers: {12, 13, 14, 15, 16}

To find the mean, add the numbers together: 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + 16 = 70

Then, divide by the number of items in the set: 70 / 5 = 14

The median is the middle number in a set of numbers. To find the median, arrange the numbers from least to greatest and then find the number that is in the middle of the set.

To find the median, arrange the numbers in order from least to greatest: {12, 13, 14, 15, 16}

The median is the middle number: 14

The mode is the number that occurs most often in a set of numbers. To find the mode, arrange the numbers from least to greatest and then find the number that occurs most often.

An example of finding a mode is as follows: You have a set of numbers: {12, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16}

To find the mode, arrange the numbers in order from least to greatest: {12, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16}

The mode is the number that occurs most often: 12

Understanding Range

The range is measured by finding the difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set. To find the range, subtract the smallest value from the largest value.

An example of finding the range is as follows: You have a set of numbers: {12, 13, 14, 15, 16}

To find the range, subtract the smallest value from the largest value: 16 – 12 = 4.

The range is four.

Data Ranges can also be classified by how points are plotted on a graph. Examples of this include standard deviation, symmetry, number of peaks, and skewness.

Standard deviation describes how spread out data is from the mean. A low standard deviation means that most of the data is close to the mean, while a high standard deviation means that the data is spread out from the mean.
Symmetry occurs when data is equally distributed on either side of a line or point.
The number of peaks occurs when data has multiple local maxima or minima. Data can be unimodal (one peak or bell-shaped) or bimodal (two peaks).
Skewness occurs when data is not equally distributed on either side of a line or point. Data can be right-skewed (most of the data is on the right side of the graph), left-skewed (most of the data is on the left side of the graph), and uniform (the data is equally spread out across the graph).

Interpreting trends on graphs and tables

When looking at trends on graphs and tables, it is important to be able to identify the following:

The type of trend: The types of trends include linear, exponential, and quadratic.
The direction of the trend: The direction of the trend can be positive (increasing), negative (decreasing), or no change (flat).
The rate of change: The rate of change is the amount that the trend is increasing or decreasing by.

An example of interpreting a trend is as follows: You have a graph with the following data points: (0,0), (0, -.25), (0, -.50), (0,-.75)

The type of trend is linear.

The direction of the trend is negative.

The rate of change is .25.

This means that for every increase of one unit, the trend decreases by .25 units.

There are also data points that are outliers. An outlier is a data point that is far from the other data points in the set.

An example of an outlier is as follows: You have a set of numbers: {12, 13, 14, 15, 16}

One data point is 50.

The outlier is 50.

Understanding Probability

Probability is the chance that an event will occur. Probability can be expressed as a fraction, decimal, or percentage.

P(event) = (number of desired outcomes)/(total number of outcomes)

An example of probability is as follows: The probability of rolling a six on a dice is one out of six, or .16666667. This can also be written as a decimal, which would be .1667.

The Relationships between Two Variables

Dependent and Independent Variables

The dependent variable is the outcome of an experiment or the value that is being measured. This variable is “dependent” on that of another.

The independent variable is the one that does not depend on that of another.

This can also be classified as the cause (independent variable) and effect (dependent variable).

For example, in an experiment to see how different amounts of light affect plant growth, the dependent variable would be the height of the plant, while the independent variable would be the amount of light.

Correlation

Correlation or covariance is a statistical measure that describes the relationship between two variables.

There are three types of correlations: positive, negative, and no correlation.

A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases.
A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases.
No correlation means that there is no relationship between the two variables.

An example of a positive correlation is as follows: As the temperature outside increases, so do the ice cream sales.

An example of a negative correlation is as follows: As the price of gas increases, the number of miles driven per week decreases.

An example of no correlation is as follows: The number of hours of sleep per night has no correlation with the grade on a test.

Comparing and Contrasting Direct and Inverse Relationships

A direct relationship or direct variation is a straight line relationship in which the dependent variable increases as the independent variable increases. For example, y=mx.

An inverse relationship is a curved line relationship in which the dependent variable decreases as the independent variable increases. For example, y=m/x.

Calculate Geometric Quantities

Perimeter and Circumference

The perimeter is the distance around a two-dimensional shape. The formula for perimeter is P=s+s+s… (where s stands for the length of each side).

To find the perimeter of a complex shape, add all the lengths of each side together.

The circumference is the distance around a circle. The formula for circumference is C=πd (where d stands for the diameter of the circle).

Area

The area is the amount of two-dimensional space that a shape covers. The formula for area varies depending on the shape.

To find the area of a rectangle, use the formula A=lw (where l stands for length and w stands for width).
To find the area of a triangle, use the formula A=½bh (where b stands for base and h stands for height).
To find the area of a circle, use the formula A=πr² (where r stands for radius).
To find the area of a parallelogram, use the formula A=hb (where h stands for height and b stands for base)
To find the area of a trapezoid, use the formula A=½h(b1 + b2) where h stands for height, b1 stands for the smallest base, and b2 stands for the largest base.

Volume

The volume is the amount of three-dimensional space that a shape takes up. The formula for volume varies depending on the shape.

To find the volume of a rectangular prism, use the formula V=lwh (where l stands for length, w stands for width, and h stands for height).
To find the volume of a triangular prism, use the formula V=bhl/2 (where b stands for the base, h stands for the height, and l stands for length)
To find the volume of a cylinder, use the formula V=πr²h (where r stands for radius and h stands for height).
To find the volume of a rectangular pyramid, use the formula V=⅓lwh (where l stands for length, w stands for width, and h stands for height).
To find the volume of a cone, use the formula V=⅓πr²h (where r stands for radius and h stands for height).

Convert between Standard and Metric Systems

Standard System

In the United States, the standard system is used to measure length, capacity, and weight.

The most common units of length are inches, feet, yards, and miles.

The most common units of capacity are teaspoons, tablespoons, cups, pints, quarts, and gallons.

The most common units of weight are ounces and pounds.

How to use dimensional analysis to convert units

Determine what you are converting. In this case, we are converting length from inches to feet.
Determine the relationship between the units. In this case, there are 12 inches in one foot.
Set up the equation. In this case, it would be 12 inches = x feet.
Solve the unknown unit. In this case, x = 12/12 feet or x = one foot.

This same process can be used to convert between any units in the standard system.

Metric System

In many other countries, the metric system is used to measure length, capacity, and weight.

The most common units of length are millimeters, centimeters, meters, and kilometers.

The most common units of capacity are milliliters and liters.

The most common units of weight are grams and kilograms.

The metric system is based on the powers of ten. This means that each unit is ten times larger or smaller than the one before or after it.

For example, one meter is ten times larger than one decimeter and one hundred times larger than one centimeter.

This means that to convert from a larger unit to a smaller unit, you will need to move the decimal point to the left.

For example, to convert from centimeters to meters, you would move the decimal point two places to the left (100 cm = .01 m).

To convert from a smaller unit to a larger unit, you will need to move the decimal point to the right.

For example, to convert from millimeters to centimeters, you would move the decimal point one place to the right (.001 m = 1000 mm).

Converting between standard and metric systems

When converting between the standard and metric systems, it is important to know the equivalents between the units.

For example, 1 gallon is equal to 3.8 liters.

Common conversions you may see on the ATI TEAS include

1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds (lbs)
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm)
1 meter (m) = 3.28 feet (ft)
1 ounce (oz) = 28.5 grams (g)
1 mile (mi) = 1.6 kilometers (km)

ATI TEAS Science: Human Anatomy and Physiology -An In-Depth Guide

Nurse Cheung — Sat, 07 Jan 2023 17:15:11 +0000

If you’re planning to take the ATI TEAS Science exam, you’ll need to know a lot about human anatomy and physiology.

This in-depth guide will teach you everything you need to know! We’ll cover all the key topics on the exam, including cells, tissues, and organ systems; skeletal system; muscular system; nervous system; cardiovascular system; respiratory system; urinary system; and digestive system. Let’s get started!

Objectives for Human Anatomy and Physiology

Total scored items on ATI TEAS: 18 questions out of 44

Demonstrate Knowledge of the General Orientation of Human Anatomy

Anatomical Terminology

The ATI TEAS will expect you to be able to identify the position and location of the human body. Common anatomical terminology you may see is

Cephalic – head
Cranial- skull
Facial – face
Frontal – forehead
Occipital – base of the skull
Temporal – temple
Orbital or ocular – eye
Otic – ear
Buccal – cheek
Nasal – nose
Oral – mouth
Mental – chin
Cervical – neck
Sternal – breastbone
Thoracic – chest
Mammary- breast
Acromial – shoulder
Scapular – shoulder blade
Vertebral – spinal column
Lumbar – lower back
Dorsal – back
Axillary – Armpit
Brachial – Arm
Antecubital – front of the elbow
Olecranal or cubital – back of the elbow
Antebrachial – forearm
Carpal – wrist
Palmar – palm
Pollex – thumb
Dorsum – back of the hand
Manual – hand
Digital or phalangeal – fingers
Abdominal – abdomen
Umbilical – naval
Coxa – hip
Sacral – between the hips
Coccygeal – tailbone
Gluteal – buttock
Pelvic – pelvis
Pubic – pubis
Perineal – area between anus and external genitals
Inguinal – groin
Femoral – thigh
Patella – front of the knee
Popliteal – back of the knee
Crural – shin
Sural – calf
Pedal – foot
Tarsal – ankle
Digital of phalangeal – toe
Pedal – foot
Plantar – sole of the foot
Calcaneal – heel
Tarsal – ankle
Dorsum – top of the foot
Hallux – the great toe

Anatomical Position and Anatomical Direction

When studying human anatomy, it is important to use a standard anatomical position. This position includes the following:

Anterior (toward the front) – For example, the kneecap is on the anterior side of the leg.
Posterior (toward the back) – For example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body.

Superior (toward the head) – For example, the hand is part of the superior extremity.
Inferior (toward the feet) – For example, the foot is part of the inferior extremity.

Medial (toward the midline) – For example, the chest is medial to the arm.
Lateral (away from the midline) – For example, the little toe is lateral to the big toe on the same foot.

Proximal (closer to the trunk of the body) – For example, the proximal end of the femur joins the pelvic bone.
Distal (farther from the trunk of the body) – For example, the hand is distal to the shoulder.

You will also need to be familiar with common directional terms, such as:

A sagittal plane or median is a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left halves.
A frontal plane or coronal is a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) halves.
A transverse plane or cross-section is a horizontal plane that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) halves.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory Systems

Structure of the Respiratory System

The respiratory system is responsible for taking in oxygen from the environment and releasing carbon dioxide. The structure of the respiratory system includes the nose, mouth, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

The nose is the external opening of the respiratory system.
The nostrils lead into the nasal cavity, which is divided into two sections by the septum.
The mouth and throat are also part of the respiratory system.
The throat, or pharynx, is a tube that starts behind the nose and goes down to the esophagus.
The larynx, or voice box, is located at the top of the trachea.
The trachea, or windpipe, is a tube that goes from the larynx to the bronchi.
The bronchi are the two main tubes that lead from the trachea to the lungs.
The bronchioles are the smaller tubes that branch off from the bronchi and lead to the alveoli.
The alveoli are tiny sacs where gas exchange takes place. These are small, single-cell structures that group together in clusters like grapes.
The right lung is divided into three sections, while the left lung is divided into two sections. The left lung allows for more space to house the heart.

The Function of the Respiratory System

The respiratory system is responsible for taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide.

When you breathe in, or inhale, your diaphragm contracts and moves downward. This increases the volume of your thoracic cavity and decreases the pressure inside of it. Oxygen is pulled in from the atmospheric air as well as other elements. Oxygen passes from the alveoli into the blood.

As a result, air flows into your lungs.

When you breathe out, or exhale, your diaphragm relaxes and moves upward. This decreases the volume of your thoracic cavity and increases the pressure inside of it. Carbon dioxide is released from the alveoli into the lungs also known as ventilation.

As a result, air flows out of your lungs.

The respiratory system is also responsible for maintaining the pH of the blood.

When the blood becomes too acidic, the respiratory system kicks in to remove the excess acid.

This is done by blowing off carbon dioxide, which is an acidic gas.

Factors that Affect the Respiratory System

There are a number of factors that can affect the respiratory system.

Diseases, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and asthma, can all cause problems with breathing. Asthma is a common condition that causes the airways to narrow. Mucus buildup can occur making it difficult to inhale and exhale.

Smoking cigarettes is also a major factor that can damage the respiratory system.

Cigarette smoke contains a number of harmful chemicals that can damage the lungs and airways.

Other factors, such as pollution and dust, can also affect the respiratory system.

When the air quality is poor, it can irritate the lungs and cause problems with breathing.

Allergies and inflammation can also play a role in the respiratory system. If you have allergies, your airways may be inflamed, which can make it difficult to breathe. People may experience shortness of breath, wheezing, and difficulty breathing.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Cardiovascular Systems

Structure of the Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body.

The heart has four chambers: the right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle.
The right atrium and left ventricle are on the right side of the heart, while the left atrium and right ventricle are on the left side.
The septum is a wall that separates the right and left sides of the heart.

The blood vessels are the tubes that carry blood throughout the body.

There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.

Arteries carry oxygen-rich (oxygenated) blood away from the heart, while veins carry oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood back to the heart.
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that connect the arteries and veins.
Blood is a liquid that carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body and carbon dioxide and wastes away from the cells.

The heart undergoes two cycles of contractions: the systole and the diastole.

The systole is the contraction of the heart, while the diastole is the relaxation of the heart.
During the systole, blood is pumped out of the heart and into the arteries. The atrioventricular (mitral and tricuspid) valves close causing the “lub” sound.
During the diastole, blood flows into the heart and fills the chambers. The semilunar (aortic and pulmonic) valves cause the “dub” sound.

The heart has its own electrical system that controls the heart rate.

The sinoatrial (SA) node is the pacemaker of the heart and sets the pace for the heart rate.

The electrical signal then travels through the atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers to the ventricles.

This causes the ventricles to contract and pump blood out of the heart.

Blood Flow Through the Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system is a closed system, meaning that the blood stays in the vessels and does not leak out under normal conditions.

The heart pumps oxygenated blood through the arteries from the lungs > left atrium > left ventricle > aorta of the body away from the heart.

The blood then flows through the capillaries, where oxygen and nutrients are exchanged in the tissues for carbon dioxide and wastes.

The carbon dioxide, wastes, and oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood are then transported through the veins back to the heart. The blood enters through the right atrium > right ventricle > lungs. Where the carbon dioxide is released for oxygen and the entire process starts over.

Functions of the Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system is responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body and removing carbon dioxide and wastes.

The heart pumps blood through the arteries to the cells of the body.
Oxygen and nutrients are delivered to the cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes are removed.

The cardiovascular system is also responsible for maintaining the body’s blood pressure.

Blood pressure is the force of the blood against the walls of the arteries.
If the blood pressure is too high, it can damage the arteries.
If the blood pressure is too low, it can cause problems with blood flow.

The cardiovascular system also helps to regulate the body’s temperature.

When the body temperature rises, the blood vessels dilate (widen) to allow heat to escape from the body.
When the body temperature drops, the blood vessels constrict (narrow) to prevent heat from escaping from the body.

The cardiovascular system is also responsible for maintaining the body’s pH.

A bicarbonate buffer system helps maintain acid by removing excess hydrogen ions from the blood.

The cardiovascular system is responsible for a variety of other functions, including:

Transporting hormones around the body
Helping to fight infections
Aiding in the digestion of food
Assisting in the repair of damaged tissue

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Digestive System

Structure of the Digestive System

The digestive system is composed of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and accessory organs.

The GI tract is a long, continuous tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus.

The GI tract is divided into the following parts: The mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum.

Digestion begins in the mouth where you chew and mechanical digestion (physical breakdown) of food occurs. Mucus in saliva lubricates the food and enzymes such as amylase and lipase initiate the chemical digestion of starches and lipids.
A bolus of food is swallowed and travels through the pharynx into the esophagus.
Peristalsis (contractions of muscles) occurs in the esophagus to move the food into the stomach.
The stomach is a J-shaped sac that stores food, initiates chemical digestion with enzymes, and mixes the food.
Gastric acid kills bacteria, denatures proteins, and activates digestive enzymes.
The small intestine is the main site of digestion and absorption. It is composed of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
The small intestine is coiled and has a series of foldings that increase the surface area for absorption.
The large intestine is composed of the cecum, colon, and rectum.
The large intestine absorbs water, electrolytes, and vitamins produced by enteric bacteria.
The rectum is the final section of the GI tract and stores feces until they are eliminated through defecation.

The accessory organs include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

These organs help to break down food into smaller pieces so that the body can absorb the nutrients.

Enzyme and Hormones Involved in Digestion

There are several hormones involved in the digestive process, including:

Gastrin: This hormone is produced by the stomach and stimulates the production of stomach acid.
Cholecystokinin (CCK): This hormone is produced by the small intestine and stimulates the release of enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver.
Secretin: This hormone is produced by the small intestine and stimulates the production of bicarbonate by the pancreas.
Insulin: This hormone is produced by the pancreas and helps to regulate blood sugar levels.
Glucagon: This hormone is produced by the pancreas and helps to release glucose from the liver.
Bile: This fluid is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile breaks down fats in the small intestine.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System

Divisions of the Nervous System

The nervous system can be divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The CNS is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. This is the central command center where all communication and actions occur in the body.
The PNS is composed of the nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and innervate the body. This system sends the signals by the brain to the targeted locations.
The nervous system is responsible for transmitting signals between the body and the brain.

Structure of the Neuron

The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron. Neurons are composed of the cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles.
Dendrites are short, branch-like extensions that generated graded electrical impulses.
The axon is a long extension that transmits the signals to other neurons.
At the end of the axon are the terminal buttons which release neurotransmitters called the axon terminal.
Myelin sheath is a white, fatty substance that covers the axon and helps to increase the speed of nerve impulses.
Synapse is the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron.

The Function of the Neuron

The nervous system is responsible for transmitting signals between the body and the brain. These signals can be in the form of electrical impulses or chemical signals.

The electrical impulses are generated by the movement of ions across the cell membrane. This action potential is then transmitted down the axon to the terminal buttons.

The chemical signals are transmitted by the release of neurotransmitters from the terminal buttons. These neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron and generate an electrical impulse.

This process allows for communication between different parts of the body and the brain.

The nervous system is responsible for transmitting signals between the body and the brain.

Sensory (afferent) neurons send messages to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons send messages to muscles and can be further divided into the autonomic (involuntary) and somatic (voluntary) nervous systems.

The autonomic nervous system is responsible for involuntary actions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.
The somatic nervous system is responsible for voluntary actions such as the movement of the limbs.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Muscular System

Types of Muscle Tissues

There are three types of muscle tissues in the body: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.

Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and is responsible for the movement of the body. These muscles are striated and very strong. This muscle is the only voluntary tissue in the body.
Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and pumps blood throughout the body. These muscles are also striated. Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be consciously controlled making the muscle involuntary.
Smooth muscle is found in the walls of internal organs such as the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. These muscles are not striated and involuntary as they cannot be controlled consciously. These muscles are the weakest of all off muscle tissues.

The Function of Muscle Tissues

Muscles are responsible for the movement of the body. They generate force by contracting and produce movement by moving the bones to which they are attached. There are over 700 named muscles in the body and makeup approximately half of the total body weight.

Nerves Control Muscles In the Nervous System

Nerves control muscles by sending electrical impulses to the muscle. These impulses cause the muscle to contract and generate force. The nerve impulse originates in the brain and is sent through the spinal cord to the muscle.

The message is then sent down the axon of the nerve to the muscle. The muscle fibers receive the message and contract.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Structures of Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is made up of the testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and penis.

The testes are a pair of oval-shaped organs that produce sperm and testosterone.
The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that stores and transports sperm.
The vas deferens is a long, thin tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the seminal vesicles.
The seminal vesicles are a pair of sac-like structures that produce a fluid that nourishes the sperm.
The prostate gland is a small, round organ that produces a fluid that helps to transport the sperm.
The penis is a long, cylindrical organ that carries urine and sperm out of the body.

Structures of Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system is made up of the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva.

The ovaries are a pair of small, oval-shaped organs that produce eggs and hormones.
The fallopian tubes are a pair of long, thin tubes that carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.
The uterus is a pear-shaped organ that houses and protects a developing fetus.
The vagina is a long, cylindrical organ that carries blood and mucosal tissue from the uterus during a women’s monthly period; provides a passageway for intercourse and sperm until it is distributed to the uterus; and also allows passage for vaginal childbirth.
The vulva is the external female genitalia that includes the labia, clitoris, and urethra.

Relationship between the Reproductive System and Endocrine System

There are various hormones that are part of the endocrine system that help control processes in the reproductive system. These include gonadotropin-releasing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, testosterone, and estrogen.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone is produced in the hypothalamus and stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the pituitary gland.
The follicle-stimulating hormone helps to stimulate the growth of eggs in the ovaries and control the menstrual cycle.
Luteinizing hormone helps to trigger ovulation, the release of an egg from the ovary.
Testosterone is a hormone produced by the testes that help to produce sperm and develop male characteristics. Unlike in females, sperm is not cyclical like eggs and are constantly produced and matured.
Estrogen is a hormone produced by the ovaries that helps to develop female characteristics and regulates the menstrual cycle.

In the female reproductive system, the FSH signals the ovaries to produce more estrogen. Estrogen causes an egg to mature. LH is released causing the egg to produce progesterone to prepare the endometrium for implantation. The egg is then released from the ovary and travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus. If the egg is fertilized by a sperm, it will implant in the uterus and begin to grow. If the egg is not fertilized, it will be shed during menstruation.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Integumentary

Structure of the Integumentary System

The integumentary system is made up of the skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands.

The skin is the largest organ in the body and is made up of three layers: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous / hypodermis.

The epidermis is the outermost layer of skin that provides a waterproof barrier and protects the body from infection.
The dermis is the middle layer of skin that contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and sweat glands.
The subcutaneous / hypodermis is the innermost layer of skin that consists of fat and connective tissue.

Functions of Integumentary System

The integumentary system has several functions, including protection, regulation of body temperature, and sensation.

Protection: The skin protects the body from harmful substances, UV rays, and excessive water loss by creating a barrier from outside pathogens. Melanocytes produce melanin that helps protect against ultraviolet radiation.

Excretion: The sweat glands help to regulate body temperature by producing sweat that evaporates and cools the body. Sweat contains trace amounts of lactic acid, urea, and alcohol.

Sensation: The skin is packed with nerve endings that allow us to feel touch, pressure, heat, and cold.

Homeostasis and the Integumentary System

The integumentary system helps to maintain homeostasis by regulating body temperature and fluid balance.

When the body becomes too warm, the blood vessels in the skin dilate and sweat is produced to cool the body.

If the body becomes too cold, the blood vessels constrict and the body produces less sweat to maintain heat.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Endocrine System

Glands of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is made up of a network of glands that produce and secrete hormones. These hormones help to regulate many body functions, including growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood.

The pituitary gland is the master gland of the endocrine system and produces growth hormone, prolactin, and adrenocorticotropic hormone.

The thyroid gland produces thyroxine and calcitonin. Thyroxine helps to regulate metabolism, while calcitonin helps to regulate calcium levels in the blood.

The parathyroid gland produces parathyroid hormone, which helps to regulate calcium levels in the blood.

The thymus gland produces thymosin, which helps to develop the immune system.

The adrenal gland produces epinephrine and norepinephrine, which help to regulate the fight-or-flight response.

The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon, which help to regulate blood sugar levels.

The ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, which help to regulate the menstrual cycle.

The testes produce testosterone, which helps to regulate the development of male reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics.

Functions of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system regulates many body functions, including growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood.

Growth and Development: Hormones play a role in regulating growth and development. For example, growth hormone helps to stimulate cell division and bone growth.

Metabolism: Hormones play a role in regulating metabolism. For example, insulin helps to regulate blood sugar levels.

Reproduction: Hormones play a role in reproduction. For example, estrogen and progesterone help to regulate the menstrual cycle.

Mood: Hormones play a role in mood. For example, norepinephrine and epinephrine help to regulate the fight-or-flight response.

Many hormones from the endocrine glands have different chemical structures including lipid-based hormones; nonpolar, fat-soluble hormones; and water-soluble hormones.

Lipid-based hormones are made of cholesterol and include testosterone and estrogen. These hormones are insoluble in water and are transported in the blood by carrier proteins.

Nonpolar, fat-soluble hormones are made of amino acids and include thyroid hormones. These hormones are insoluble in water and are transported in the blood by carrier proteins.

Water-soluble hormones are made of amino acids and include epinephrine. These hormones are soluble in water and are transported in the blood by diffusion.

Homeostasis and the Endocrine System

The endocrine system helps to maintain homeostasis by regulating growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood.

For example, the endocrine system regulates growth and development by producing hormones that stimulate cell division and bone growth.

The endocrine system also regulates metabolism by producing hormones that help to regulate blood sugar levels.

In addition, the endocrine system regulates reproduction by producing hormones that help to regulate the menstrual cycle.

Finally, the endocrine system regulates mood by producing hormones that help to regulate the fight-or-flight response.

Positive and Negative Feedback Mechanisms

The endocrine system uses positive and negative feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.

A positive feedback mechanism is a process that amplifies the change in a given direction.

For example, the release of oxytocin during childbirth is a positive feedback mechanism that amplifies the change in the given direction of childbirth. Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions that cause the fetus to push against and stretch the cervix.

A negative feedback mechanism is a process that reverses the change or slows it down.

For example, the release of insulin in response to high blood sugar levels is a negative feedback mechanism that reverses the change or slows it down by lowering blood sugar levels. The pancreas is able to adjust the amount of hormone to secrete in proportion to the amount of blood glucose detected in the blood.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Urinary System

Structure of the Urinary System

The urinary system is made up of the kidneys, renal cortex, renal medulla, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

The kidneys are a pair of organs that filter blood and produce urine.

The renal cortex is the outer layer of the kidney that contains the renal pyramids and blood vessels. Erythropoietin is stimulated in the production of new red blood cells.

The renal medulla is the inner layer of the kidney that help to concentrate urine.

The ureters are a pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

The bladder is a sac that stores urine until it is ready to be excreted.

The urethra is a tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body.

Function of the Urinary System

The urinary system is an integral part of homeostasis in the body. This system helps excrete waste and maintain balance.

The structural unit of the kidney is called the nephron. Nephrons are responsible for the filtration of blood by removing waste and reabsorbing water and molecules.

The glomerulus is a ball of capillaries that is the site of filtration in the nephron.

The tubule is a tube that leads from the glomerulus to the renal pelvis. The tubule is responsible for reabsorption and secretion.

What remains from the tubule is then carried into the kidney and drained from the ureter.

Relationship between the Cardiovascular System and Urinary System

The cardiovascular system and urinary system work together to maintain homeostasis in the body.

The cardiovascular system transports blood to the kidneys so that they can filter it.

The urinary system excretes waste and helps to regulate blood pressure by controlling the volume of blood.

In turn, the kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin that stimulates the production of new red blood cells in the cardiovascular system.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Immune System

Parts of the Immune System

The immune system is made up of innate defense and adaptive defense systems.

The innate defense system is the body’s first line of defense against infection and includes physical barriers, such as skin and mucous membranes, as well as chemical barriers, such as enzymes and stomach acid.

The adaptive defense system is the body’s second line of defense and includes the lymphatic system, white blood cells, and antibodies.

Function of the Immune System

The immune system protects the body from foreign invaders, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

It does this by recognizing these invaders and producing antibodies to destroy them.

The immune system also helps to remove these invaders from the body and memory T cells help the body to remember these invaders so that they can be destroyed more quickly if they enter the body again.

Innate Immune System

One of the first responses is called the inflammatory response. This is when blood vessels dilate and white blood cells and fluids are sent to the area of infection.

Histamines are released causing an increase in blood flow to the area and the number of white blood cells called phagocytes. These phagocytes destroy the unknown bacteria.

This response helps to remove the foreign invader and to begin the healing process.

Adaptive Immune System

The adaptive defense system is the body’s second line of defense and includes the lymphatic system, white blood cells, and antibodies. This system functions with the help of antigens, antigen-presenting cells, helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, cytokines, antibodies and memory cells.

Antigens are foreign invaders that the body had been exposed to, such as bacteria or viruses, that induce an immune response.

Antigen-presenting cells are white blood cells that engulf the foreign invader and present the antigen on its surface.

Helper T cells are a type of white blood cell that helps to activate the other cells of the immune system. The helper T cells induce B cells to secrete a large number of antibodies to bind to the antigen.

Cytotoxic T cells are a type of white blood cell that destroys infected cells.

Cytokines are chemicals that help to regulate the immune response and activate cytotoxic T cells.

Antibodies are proteins that attach to antigens and help to destroy them.

Memory cells are white blood cells that remember a specific foreign invader and help the body to respond more quickly if the invader enters the body again.

Passive vs Active Immunity

There are two types of immunity: passive and active.

Passive immunity is when the body is exposed to antibodies that have been made by another individual, such as when a mother passes antibodies to her child through breast milk.

Active immunity is when the body produces its own antibodies in response to an infection.

Active immunity is usually longer lasting than passive immunity.

Describe the Anatomy and Physiology of the Skeletal System

Structure and Function of the Skeletal System

The skeletal system is made up of bones, which are connected by joints. Bones are held together at the joints by ligaments.

Bones come in four major types: long, short, flat, and irregular.

Long bones are found in the arms and legs including the humerus, femur, ulna radius, tibia, and fibula. They are longer than they are wide and have a shaft with two enlarged ends, called the proximal and distal ends. The shaft of the long bone is called the diaphysis and the enlarged ends are called the epiphyses.

Short bones are found in the wrists and ankles and include the bones of the carpals and tarsals. They are approximately equal in length and width.

Flat bones are found in the ribs, sternum, shoulder blades, and hip bones. They are thin and often curved.

Irregular bones are found in the spine and include the vertebrae. They have a variety of shapes and are not symmetrical.

Bone Composition

Bones are made up of several different types of tissue including compact bone, spongy bone, cancellous bone, and trabecular bone.

Compact bone is the hard outer layer of bone that provides protection and support. It makes up the shaft of long bones and the flat surfaces of other bones.

Spongy bone is a porous, lightweight bone that is found at the ends of long bones and in the vertebrae.

Cancellous bone is a type of spongy bone that contains many small cavities.

Trabecular bone is a type of spongy bone that has a honeycomb-like structure.

Bones are also made up of marrow, which is a soft tissue that produces blood cells.

Brittle bone disease (osteogenesis imperfecta) results from a mutation in the gene that codes for collagen, which is a protein that makes up bone tissue. This disease causes bones to be fragile and break easily.

The Skeletal System and Muscular System

The muscular system provides movement for the skeletal system and they must work together through communication with the nervous system.

The muscle connects to bones with tendons which are comprised of connective tissue. For example, the biceps brachii is a muscle in the upper arm that attaches to the shoulder bone with tendons. The biceps brachii contract to lift the arm.

ATI TEAS Science: Life and Physical Sciences – An In-Depth Guide

Nurse Cheung — Sat, 07 Jan 2023 17:15:08 +0000

Are you preparing to take the ATI TEAS Science Test?

If so, you will want to read this in-depth guide! We will provide an overview of the topics covered on the test, as well as some tips and strategies for success.

In this article, we will focus on the Life Sciences section.

Objectives for Life and Physical Science

Total scored items on ATI TEAS: 9 questions out of 44

Describe Cell Structure, Function, and Organization

Biological Hierarchy of the Body

When we discuss biological hierarchy, we are discussing the way we organize structures in living things by classifying structures from basic components to more complex components.

These structures are broken down into the following categories: chemicals, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms.

Chemicals help build cells. Macromolecules are chemicals that are essential to life and are important in carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

The cell is the basic unit of life. All living things are made up of cells. Cells perform all the functions necessary for life. There are more than 250 different types of cells that help the human body carry out life processes.

Tissues are made up of cells that have a similar structure and function. There are four types of tissues in the human body: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Tissues can help carry out functions such as protection, support, movement, and communication.

For example, the lungs deliver oxygen to the tissues via the bloodstream.

Organs are made up of tissues that work together to carry out a specific function. For example, the heart pumps blood through the body.

Organ systems are a group of organs that work together to carry out a specific function. The human body has 11 organ systems: the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.

Each organ system has a specific function that helps the body carry out life processes. For example, the integumentary system helps protect the body from disease and infection.

Organisms are made up of one or more organ systems. Humans are multicellular organisms that are made up of 11 organ systems previously discussed.

Cell Structure and Function

Cells are the basic unit of life. All living things are made up of cells. Cells perform all the functions necessary for life. There are more than 250 different types of cells that help the human body carry out life processes.

The cell is composed of ten parts: the cell membrane, cytoplasm, Golgi Apparatus, lysosome, mitochondrion, nucleus, ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and vacuole.

The cell membrane is a thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. The cell membrane is selectively permeable, meaning that it allows some substances to enter and exit the cell while keeping other substances out.
The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that contains the cell’s organelles. It helps support and suspends the structures inside the cell membrane. It can also transfer material required for other cellular processes.
The Golgi Apparatus is an organelle that helps to package and transport molecules within the cell. it also helps process proteins and lipid molecules.
Lysosomes are organelles that contain enzymes that break down food and other molecules. They aid in digestion and recycle old cell materials. Lastly, they destroy invading bacteria and viruses.
Mitochondria are organelles that produce energy for the cell. They convert nutrients into ATP, which is the cell’s energy source.
The nucleus is an organelle that contains the cell’s hereditary information also known as DNA. DNA is responsible for the cell’s growth, reproduction, and function.
Ribosomes are organelles that help synthesize proteins. Proteins are essential for the cell to carry out its functions. These organelles can be round on either the rough-endoplasmic reticulum or floating in the cytoplasm.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle that helps to package and transport molecules within the cell. It is also involved in the synthesis of proteins.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle that helps to package and transport molecules specifically lipids within the cell but does not contain ribosomes. It is also involved in carbohydrate metabolism and inactivates toxins along with harmful metabolic products.
A vacuole is an organelle that stores food, water, and other materials. It also helps to maintain the cell’s shape.

Mitosis Process of the Cell Cycle

Mitosis is the process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. The cell cycle is the sequence of events that a cell goes through as it grows and divides.

The cell cycle has four main stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Interphase is the first stage of the cell cycle. It is when the cell grows and carries out its normal functions. DNA starts to replicate.
Prophase is the second stage of the cell cycle. In this stage, the chromosomes condense and become visible. The nuclear envelope also breaks down.
Metaphase is the third stage of the cell cycle. In this stage, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
Anaphase is the fourth stage of the cell cycle. In this stage, the chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell. Cell division begins.
Telophase is the fifth and final stage of the cell cycle. In this stage, a new nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes. The chromosomes uncoil and become less visible. The cell then divides into two daughter cells.

The cell cycle is a continuous process that takes place in all cells. Mitosis is just one part of the cell cycle. After telophase, the two daughter cells enter interphase and the cell cycle starts all over again.

Meiosis Process of the Cell Cycle

Cells can also divide through a process called meiosis. Meiosis is a type of cell division that results in four genetically diverse daughter cells.

Unlike mitosis, meiosis also has two main stages: meiosis I (interphase, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I), and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II).

Interphase is the first stage of meiosis. The cell grows and carries out its normal functions. DNA starts to replicate.

Meiosis I

Prophase I is the second stage of meiosis. In this stage, the homologous chromosomes pair and start to crossover.

Metaphase I is the third stage of meiosis. In this stage, the homologous chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell in pairs.

Anaphase I is the fourth stage of meiosis. In this stage, the one chromosome from each homologous pair is pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell.

Telophase I is the fifth stage of meiosis. In this stage, the two daughter cells start to form. Each cell has half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. The cells also have a mixture of genetic information.

Meiosis II

Prophase II is the sixth stage of meiosis. In this stage, the daughter cells contain half of the chromosomes from the original cells.

Metaphase II is the seventh stage of meiosis. In this stage, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell again.

Anaphase II is the eighth stage of meiosis. In this stage, the sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell.

Telophase II is the ninth and final stage of meiosis. In this stage, the cells divide into four genetically diverse daughter cells also known as haploids.

Meiosis is a continuous process that takes place in all cells. Meiosis I and II are just two parts of meiosis.

Describe the Relationship between Genetic Material and the Structure of Proteins

Chromosomes

Chromosomes are long, thread-like structures that are found in the nucleus of cells. They are made up of DNA and histone proteins. The winding structure condenses DNA and allows regulation.

All species of living things have chromosomes. Prokaryote organisms like bacteria have one chromosome. Eukaryote organisms have multiple chromosomes.

For example, humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell of their body, except for gametes or sex cells. Whereas dogs have 78 chromosomes.

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. One pair is inherited from the mother and the other pair is inherited from the father. This makes up the diploid number.

Genes

Genes are the basic units of heredity. They are made up of DNA and are responsible for the characteristics of an organism. Genes are passed down from parent to offspring.

Each gene has the instructions for making a specific protein. Proteins are large molecules that perform many functions in the body.

It is estimated that the human body has 25,000 genes.

There are two types of genes: structural and regulatory genes.

Structural genes are responsible for the physical traits of an organism. For example, the color of your eyes or hair is determined by structural genes.
Regulatory genes control the activity of other genes. For example, regulatory genes can turn other genes on or off.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

DNA is the genetic material that contains genes that are coded with instructions to produce proteins in the cell. DNA is made up of two long chains of nucleotides that twist to create a double helix.

The sequence of the nucleotides in DNA determines the order of amino acids in proteins. This is known as the genetic code. These nucleotides have four bases: A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine), and C (cytosine).

A base pair is two nucleotides that are bonded together. For example, A pairs with T and G pairs with C. These complementary bases are liked by hydrogen bonds pair up to hold the two strands of DNA together.

The double helix structure of DNA is very important because it allows for replication. Replication is the process of making an identical copy of DNA.

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides that code for a specific amino acid. There are 64 possible codons in the DNA code. 61 of these codons code for amino acids and the other three “stop signal” codons will end the gene.

A mutation may occur during replication that causes a permanent change in the DNA sequence. This can result in a change in the amino acid sequence of proteins and may lead to changes in the structure or function of the protein.

Ribonucleic Acids (RNA)

RNA’s principal role is to translate the genetic code of DNA into proteins.

RNA is very similar to DNA except for a few key differences. The most notable difference is that RNA is single-stranded. RNA also has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).

Transcription and Translation

Transcription is the process of making RNA from DNA. The DNA double helix unwinds and one strand of the DNA serves as a template for RNA synthesis.

RNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA from nucleotides. This enzyme attaches to one end of the DNA template and then moves along the template, adding nucleotides one at a time.

As RNA is being made, it is complementary to the template strand of DNA. When RNA synthesis is complete, the RNA molecule is released from the DNA template, and the DNA double helix reforms.

RNA is found in three main forms: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the RNA that carries the genetic code from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the RNA that helps to assemble amino acids into proteins that act as adapters in the translation of the genetic sequence.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the RNA that makes up ribosomes.

Translation is the process of making proteins from RNA. This occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

mRNA attaches to the small subunit of a ribosome and then tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome. As the amino acids are brought to the ribosome, they are joined together by peptide bonds to form a protein.

The genetic code is read in groups of three nucleotides, called codons. Each codon codes for a specific amino acid.

The sequence of codons in mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Apply Concepts Underlying
Mendel's Law of Inheritance

Dominant and Recessive Traits

Inheritance is the process by which traits are passed from parents to their offspring.

Mendel’s law of inheritance states that there are two alleles for each trait. Alleles are alternative forms of a gene.

One allele is dominant and the other allele is recessive. The allele that is expressed in the phenotype is the dominant allele.

Inheritance of Gene Paris

Each parent contributes one allele to their offspring. For example, if a mother has the allele for blue eyes (b) and the father has the allele for brown eyes (B), then their offspring will have the allele for blue eyes (b) and the allele for brown eyes (B).

The allele for blue eyes is recessive and the allele for brown eyes is dominant. This means that the phenotype of the offspring will be brown eyes.

However, if both parents have the allele for blue eyes (bb), then their offspring will also have the allele for blue eyes (bb) and the phenotype of the offspring will be blue eyes.

The combination of two alleles is called a genotype. If the chromosome contains two different alleles for a trait, then the genotype is heterozygous. If the chromosome contains two identical alleles for a trait, then the genotype is homozygous.

In the example above, the mother’s genotype is heterozygous (Bb) and the father’s genotype is heterozygous (Bb). The offspring’s genotype has a 25% chance of being homozygous (bb).

Using Punnett Squares

A Punnett square is a tool that is used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of offspring.

To use a Punnett square, you need to know the genotypes of the parents.

In the Punnett square above, the mother’s genotype is represented by the letters “B” and “b” and the father’s genotype is represented by the letters “B” and “b”.

The genotypes of the offspring are represented by the letters “B” and “b”.

The phenotype of the offspring is represented by the color of the eyes.

As you can see, there is a 25% chance that the offspring will have blue eyes and a 75% chance that the offspring will have brown eyes.

Inheritance of Multiple Alleles or Dihybrid Cross

There are two alleles for each trait. However, there are more than two alleles for some traits.

For example, the allele for hair color can be black (B), brown (b), or blond (bl).

The allele for eye color can be blue (r), brown (R), or green (G).

A dihybrid cross is a Punnett square that shows the inheritance of two traits.

In the Punnett square above, the father’s genotype is represented by the letters “B”, “b”, and “bl” and the mother’s genotype is represented by the letters “B”, “b”, and “G”.

The genotypes of the offspring are represented by the letters “B”, “b”, “bl”, and “G”.

The phenotype of the offspring is represented by the color of the eyes and the color of the hair.

As you can see, there is a 25% chance that the offspring will have black hair and blue eyes, a 25% chance that the offspring will have black hair and brown eyes, a 25% chance that the offspring will have blond hair and blue eyes, and a 25% chance that the offspring will have blond hair and green eyes.

Non-Mendelian Inheritance

There are some exceptions to Mendel’s law of inheritance.

One example of non-Mendelian inheritance is incomplete dominance. In incomplete dominance, the phenotype of the offspring is a blend of the phenotypes of the parents.

For example, if a red flower (RR) is crossed with a white flower (WW), the offspring will be pink (RW).

Another example of non-Mendelian inheritance is codominance. In codominance, the phenotype of the offspring is a combination of the phenotypes of the parents.

For example, if a black chicken (BB) is crossed with a white chicken (WW), the offspring will be black and white (BW).

There are also some exceptions to Mendel’s law of independent assortment.

One example of this is linkage. Linkage is when two genes are located close to each other on the same chromosome and are inherited together.

Another example of this is sex-linked inheritance. Sex-linked inheritance is when a gene is located on the X or Y chromosome.

The most common example of this is color-blindness, which is caused by a gene located on the X chromosome.

Describe Structure and Function of Basic Macromolecules in the Biological System

Macromolecules

Macromolecules are large molecules that are essential for the structure and function of cells.

A polymer is a macromolecule that is made up of smaller units called covalent bond-linked monomers.

Chemical reactions can occur known as dehydration and hydrolysis.

Dehydration synthesis is the formation of larger molecules from smaller reactants accompanied by the loss of a water molecule.
Hydrolysis is the process of breaking down bonds to break monomers.

There are four major types of macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are also known as “sugars” or “starches” found in all living organisms.

They can be monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are the simplest type of carbohydrate and they cannot be hydrolyzed to produce smaller units. A common monosaccharide is glucose.
Disaccharides are two monosaccharides that are joined by a covalent bond. A common disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar).
Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides that are joined by covalent bonds. A common polysaccharide is starch and cellulose.

Carbohydrates can also take many different forms to perform functions. These forms can be linear, branched, and helix-shaped.

Linear carbohydrates are long unbranched chains of monosaccharides that form structures. For example, cellulose is a major component of rigid cell walls in plants.
Branched carbohydrates are shorter chains of monosaccharides with branches. For example, maltose is a common disaccharide found in germinating seeds that are used for energy storage.
Helix-shaped carbohydrates are coiled chains of monosaccharides that form structures. For example, DNA is a double helix-shaped nucleic acid.

Lipids

Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are important energy storage, structural, and hormone macromolecules. Lipids are formed by a linear arrangement of carbon atoms and hydron atoms called fatty acid chains.

Lipids tend to be hydrophobic and nonpolar meaning they do not mix well with water.

Lipids can be divided into four groups: fat and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. All of these groups are insoluble in water.

A fat molecule is composed of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains. Fats are used for long-term energy storage in the body. They are also useful in cushioning and insulating the human body.
Waxes are composed of a long chain of fatty acids that are linked to long-chain alcohol. Waxes serve as a protective coating on the surface of plants.
Phospholipids are composed of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group. Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes.
Steroids are composed of four interconnected carbon rings. Steroids include cholesterol, which is a structural component of cell membranes, and hormones like testosterone and estrogen. They are often used as chemical messengers.

Proteins

Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur. Proteins are made up of smaller units called amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds.

Proteins can be classified into four groups: enzymes, structural proteins, storage proteins, and transport proteins.

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction. They speed up reactions by lowering the energy required to initiate the reaction. These reactions can be exergonic (release energy) or endogenic (require energy).
Structural proteins provide support and structure.
Storage proteins store nutrients.
Transport proteins transport molecules.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.

There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) as we discussed previously.

Describe the Role of Micro-Organisms in Disease

Micro-Organisms

Micro-organisms, also known as microbes, are tiny living organisms. They are too small to be seen with the naked eye and can only be seen with a microscope.

Micro-organisms are found everywhere, including in the air, soil, water, and on plants and animals. Some micro-organisms can cause disease. Others are used in the production of food and drugs, or to help with the decomposition of organic matter.

The human body is home to many different types of micro-organisms, including bacteria, viruses, protozoans, fungi, and animals. Most of these micro-organisms are harmless and even helpful. For example, the bacteria in our gut help us to digest food.

However, some micro-organisms can cause disease. This can happen when they enter our bodies and multiply. It can also happen when the micro-organisms produce toxins that make us sick.

Bacteria are single-celled micro-organisms that can live in many different environments. Some bacteria cause diseases such as tuberculosis, meningitis, food poisoning, and more. Bacterial cells lack a nucleus making them prokaryotic in nature. Not all bacteria are pathogenic as many are harmless and help with body functions
Viruses are even smaller than bacteria and can only be seen with an electron microscope. They are not considered to be alive because they cannot reproduce on their own. Viruses must infect a host cell in order to reproduce. Examples include influenza, COVID-19, measles, mumps, and HIV.
Protozoans are single-celled micro-organisms that are found in water, soil, and air. They feed on other cells and divide based on their mode of movement (flagellar, ciliary, and amoeboid). Some protozoans cause diseases such as malaria, giardiasis, and amoebic dysentery.
Fungi are micro-organisms that are classified as eukaryotes (cells with a nucleus). They can be found in air, soil, water, and on plant and animal bodies. Some fungi are helpful, such as those used in the production of bread, cheese, and beer. Other fungi can cause diseases such as athlete’s foot, ringworm, and candidiasis.
Animals such as parasitic worms are large enough for people to see with the naked eye and can live on the body. Flatworms can live in the intestines and roundworms can live in the GI and lymphatic systems.

Infectious vs Non-Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases can be spread from one person to another such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi. They are commonly known as communicable diseases. Some examples include chickenpox, COVID-19, and cholera.

Noninfectious diseases are not caused by microorganisms and cannot be spread from person to person. They include cancer, heart disease, and diabetes.

How do Infectious Diseases Spread

Infectious diseases can spread through direct contact, indirect contact, or vectors.

Direct contact is when the infectious agent comes into contact with the mucous membranes or broken skin of another person. This can happen through shaking hands then touching your mucous membranes, kissing and broken skin present, or sexual contact.
Indirect contact is when an infectious agent comes into contact with an object or surface that another person will then touch. An example of this would be touching a doorknob that someone with the flu touched.
Vectors are living organisms that can carry and transmit an infectious agent to humans or other animals. The most common vectors are mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas.

Microscopes

A microscope is an instrument used to enlarge objects so they can be seen more clearly. There are two main types of microscopes used by microbiologists: light and electron microscopes.

Light microscopes are dependent on a light source. There are several types of light microscopes including dark-field, bright-field, phase contrast, fluorescence, differential interference contrast, and confocal scanning laser microscopes.

Electron microscopes are dependent on an electron beam. They are used to seeing objects at a much higher magnification than light microscopes (put to 150,000 times the size of the specimen). There are two types of electron microscopes: transmission (TEM) and scanning (SEM).